{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T23:29:14Z","timestamp":1790724554771,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]],"date-time":"2022-04-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650931200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>African swine fever (ASF) is among the most devastating viral diseases of pigs and wild boar worldwide. In recent years, the disease has spread alarmingly. Despite intensive research activities, a commercialized vaccine is still not available, and efficacious live attenuated vaccine candidates raise safety concerns. From a safety perspective, inactivated preparations would be most favourable. However, both historical and more recent trials with chemical inactivation did not show an appreciable protective effect. Under the assumption that the integrity of viral particles could enhance presentation of antigens, we used gamma irradiation for inactivation. To this means, gamma irradiated ASFV \u201cEstonia 2014\u201d was adjuvanted with either Polygen\u2122 or Montanide\u2122 ISA 201 VG, respectively. Subsequently, five weaner pigs per preparation were immunized twice with a three-week interval. Six weeks after the first immunization, all animals were challenged with the highly virulent ASFV strain \u201cArmenia 2008\u201d. Although ASFV p72-specific IgG antibodies were detectable in all vaccinated animals prior challenge, no protection could be observed. All animals developed an acute lethal course of ASF and had to be euthanized at a moderate humane endpoint within six days. Indeed, the vaccinated pigs showed even higher clinical scores and a higher inner body temperature than the control group. However, significantly lower viral loads were detectable in spleen and liver of immunized animals at the time point of euthanasia. This phenomenon suggests an immune mediated disease enhancement that needs further investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.832264","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]],"date-time":"2022-04-26T11:53:49Z","timestamp":1650974029000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Vaccination With a Gamma Irradiation-Inactivated African Swine Fever Virus Is Safe But Does Not Protect Against a Challenge"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Jutta","family":"Pikalo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luca","family":"Porfiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valerij","family":"Akimkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanna","family":"Roszyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katrin","family":"Pannhorst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard Thiga","family":"Kangethe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viskam","family":"Wijewardana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Sehl-Ewert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Beer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Cattoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra","family":"Blome","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01293-18","article-title":"A Proteomic Atlas of the African Swine Fever Virus Particle","volume":"92","author":"Alejo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.AC119.011196","article-title":"The Cryo-EM Structure of African Swine Fever Virus Unravels a Unique Architecture Comprising Two Icosahedral Protein Capsids and Two Lipoprotein Membranes","volume":"295","author":"Andres","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2020.198099","article-title":"African Swine Fever - A Review of Current Knowledge","volume":"287","author":"Blome","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virus Res"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12614","article-title":"Biological Characterization of African Swine Fever Virus Genotype II Strains From North-Eastern Estonia in European Wild Boar","volume":"64","author":"Nurmoja","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6510","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-24740-1","article-title":"Deletion at the 5'-End of Estonian ASFV Strains Associated With an Attenuated Phenotype","volume":"8","author":"Zani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2018.03.040","article-title":"African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) Protection Mediated by NH\/P68 and NH\/P68 Recombinant Live-Attenuated Viruses","volume":"36","author":"Gallardo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00137","article-title":"First Oral Vaccination of Eurasian Wild Boar Against African Swine Fever Virus Genotype Ii","volume":"6","author":"Barasona","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-021-1904-4","article-title":"Emergence and Prevalence of Naturally Occurring Lower Virulent African Swine Fever Viruses in Domestic Pigs in China in 2020","volume":"64","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci China Life Sci"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9030242","article-title":"High Doses of Inactivated African Swine Fever Virus Are Safe, But Do Not Confer Protection Against a Virulent Challenge","volume":"9","author":"Cadenas-Fern\u00e1ndez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00084","article-title":"Progress Toward Development of Effective and Safe African Swine Fever Virus Vaccines","volume":"7","author":"Sang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1556\/030.65.2018.025","article-title":"Analysis of Antigen Conservation and Inactivation of Gamma-Irradiated Avian Influenza Virus Subtype H9N2","volume":"65","author":"Salehi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228006","article-title":"A Novel Gamma Radiation-Inactivated Sabin-Based Polio Vaccine","volume":"15","author":"Tobin","year":"2020","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-015-2430-2","article-title":"Course and Transmission Characteristics of Oral Low-Dose Infection of Domestic Pigs and European Wild Boar With a Caucasian African Swine Fever Virus Isolate","volume":"160","author":"Pietschmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch Virol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2012.12.018","article-title":"Standardization of Pathological Investigations in the Framework of Experimental ASFV Infections","volume":"173","author":"Galindo-Cardiel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virus Res"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9080662","article-title":"Comparative Pathology of Domestic Pigs and Wild Boar Infected With the Moderately Virulent African Swine Fever Virus Strain \"Estonia 2014\"","volume":"9","author":"Sehl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13650","article-title":"Stability of African Swine Fever Virus on Heat-Treated Field Crops","volume":"67","author":"Fischer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_2789_20","article-title":"Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by Gamma Irradiation","volume":"153","author":"Jain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J Med Res"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13065","article-title":"Identification of a Novel Clade of Group A Rotaviruses in Fatally Diseased Domestic Pigeons in Europe","volume":"66","author":"Rubbenstroth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0020-7519(00)00088-6","article-title":"A POLYGEN-Adjuvanted Killed Neospora Caninum Tachyzoite Preparation Failed to Prevent Foetal Infection in Pregnant Cattle Following I.V.\/I.M. Experimental Tachyzoite Challenge","volume":"30","author":"Andrianarivo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9010004","article-title":"Development of a Safe and Highly Efficient Inactivated Vaccine Candidate Against Lumpy Skin Disease Virus","volume":"9","author":"Wolff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2014.0149","article-title":"A New Adjuvant Combined With Inactivated Influenza Enhances Specific CD8 T Cell Response in Mice and Decreases Symptoms in Swine Upon Challenge","volume":"28","author":"Bouguyon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viral Immunol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-0934(02)00189-1","article-title":"Development of a TaqMan PCR Assay With Internal Amplification Control for the Detection of African Swine Fever Virus","volume":"107","author":"King","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-016-0831-4","article-title":"Development of a Novel Lateral Flow Assay for Detection of African Swine Fever in Blood","volume":"12","author":"Sastre","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Vet Res"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14245","article-title":"African Swine Fever, the Forgotten Pandemic","volume":"68","author":"Ward","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v13071212","article-title":"African Swine Fever Virus as a Difficult Opponent in the Fight for a Vaccine-Current Data","volume":"13","author":"Turlewicz-Podbielska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7774\/cevr.2015.4.2.145","article-title":"Application of Radiation Technology in Vaccines Development","volume":"4","author":"Seo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Exp Vaccine Res"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(99)00116-2","article-title":"Immunogenicity of a Killed Whole Neospora Caninum Tachyzoite Preparation Formulated With Different Adjuvants","volume":"29","author":"Andrianarivo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2010.04.042","article-title":"Immunoenhancing Effects of Montanide ISA Oil-Based Adjuvants on Recombinant Coccidia Antigen Vaccination Against Eimeria Acervulina Infection","volume":"172","author":"Jang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2013.05.078","article-title":"Montanide ISA\u2122 201 Adjuvanted FMD Vaccine Induces Improved Immune Responses and Protection in Cattle","volume":"31","author":"Dar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2010.07.018","article-title":"IFN-G Response to Vaccination Against Tuberculosis in Dairy Heifers Under Commercial Settings","volume":"90","author":"Milian-Suazo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.81038-0","article-title":"In Vivo Depletion of CD8+ T Lymphocytes Abrogates Protective Immunity to African Swine Fever Virus","volume":"86","author":"Oura","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"B32","article-title":"Inactivation of African Swine Fever Virus in Tissues by Gamma Radiation","volume":"43","author":"McVicar","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3103\/S1068367416050025","article-title":"Using Gamma Rays to Inactivate African Swine Fever Virus","volume":"42","author":"Boudarkov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Russian Agric Sci"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02219-17","article-title":"Immunization of Pigs by DNA Prime and Recombinant Vaccinia Virus Boost to Identify and Rank African Swine Fever Virus Immunogenic and Protective Proteins","volume":"92","author":"Jancovich","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.05.051","article-title":"Modern Adjuvants do Not Enhance the Efficacy of an Inactivated African Swine Fever Virus Vaccine Preparation","volume":"32","author":"Blome","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B36","article-title":"Antibody Response to Inactivated Preparations of African Swine Fever Virus in Pigs","volume":"28","author":"Stone","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2019.06.006","article-title":"Adenovirus-Vectored African Swine Fever Virus Antigen Cocktails are Immunogenic But Not Protective Against Intranasal Challenge With Georgia 2007\/1 Isolate","volume":"235","author":"Lokhandwala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines7010012","article-title":"DNA-Protein Vaccination Strategy Does Not Protect From Challenge With African Swine Fever Virus Armenia 2007 Strain","author":"Sunwoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0040942","article-title":"DNA Vaccination Partially Protects Against African Swine Fever Virus Lethal Challenge in the Absence of Antibodies","volume":"7","author":"Argilaguet","year":"2012","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2016.1269048","article-title":"Prior Immune Exposure can Protect or can Enhance Pathology in the Enteroviruses: What Predicts the Outcome","volume":"8","author":"Chapman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.10.087","article-title":"Vaccine-Induced Enhancement of Viral Infections","volume":"27","author":"Huisman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2007.12.028","article-title":"Traitors of the Immune System-Enhancing Antibodies in HIV Infection: Their Possible Implication in HIV Vaccine Development","volume":"26","author":"Beck","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.AID-0022-2014","article-title":"Dengue Antibody-Dependent Enhancement: Knowns and Unknowns","volume":"2","author":"Halstead","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiol Spectr."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cyto.a.24047","article-title":"Dengue Fever, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), and Antibody-Dependent Enhancement (ADE): A Perspective","volume":"97","author":"Ulrich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cytomet Part A"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/82_2010_118","article-title":"Targeting Skin Dendritic Cells to Improve Intradermal Vaccination","volume":"351","author":"Romani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Top Microbiol Immunol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0040942","article-title":"DNA Vaccination Partially Protects Against African Swine Fever Virus Lethal Challenge in the Absence of Antibodies","volume":"7","author":"Argilaguet","year":"2012","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01318","article-title":"Identification and Immunogenicity of African Swine Fever Virus Antigens","volume":"10","author":"Netherton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Immunol"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.832264\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]],"date-time":"2022-04-26T11:53:54Z","timestamp":1650974034000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.832264\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]]},"references-count":47,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2022.832264"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.832264","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]]},"article-number":"832264"}}