{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T11:05:20Z","timestamp":1791198320057,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":219,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]],"date-time":"2022-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646784000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The direct impact and sequelae of infections in children and adults result in significant morbidity and mortality especially when they involve the central (CNS) or peripheral nervous system (PNS). The historical understanding of the pathophysiology has been mostly focused on the direct impact of the various pathogens through neural tissue invasion. However, with the better understanding of neuroimmunology, there is a rapidly growing realization of the contribution of the innate and adaptive host immune responses in the pathogenesis of many CNS and PNS diseases.<\/jats:p><jats:p>The balance between the protective and pathologic sequelae of immunity is fragile and can easily be tipped towards harm for the host. The matter of immune privilege and surveillance of the CNS\/PNS compartments and the role of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood nerve barrier (BNB) makes this even more complex. Our understanding of the pathogenesis of many post-infectious manifestations of various microbial agents remains elusive, especially in the diverse African setting. Our exploration and better understanding of the neuroimmunology of some of the infectious diseases that we encounter in the continent will go a long way into helping us to improve their management and therefore lessen the burden.<\/jats:p><jats:p>Africa is diverse and uniquely poised because of the mix of the classic, well described, autoimmune disease entities and the specifically \u201ctropical\u201d conditions. This review explores the current understanding of some of the para- and post-infectious autoimmune manifestations of CNS and PNS diseases in the African context. We highlight the clinical presentations, diagnosis and treatment of these neurological disorders and underscore the knowledge gaps and perspectives for future research using disease models of conditions that we see in the continent, some of which are not uniquely African and, where relevant, include discussion of the proposed mechanisms underlying pathogen-induced autoimmunity. This review covers the following conditions as models and highlight those in which a relationship with COVID-19 infection has been reported: a) Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy; b) Measles-associated encephalopathies; c) Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) neuroimmune disorders, and particularly the difficulties associated with classical post-infectious autoimmune disorders such as the Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome in the context of HIV and other infections. Finally, we describe NMDA-R encephalitis, which can be post-HSV encephalitis, summarise other antibody-mediated CNS diseases and describe myasthenia gravis as the classic antibody-mediated disease but with special features in Africa.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.833548","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]],"date-time":"2022-03-09T11:27:46Z","timestamp":1646825266000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Post-Infectious Autoimmunity in the Central (CNS) and Peripheral (PNS) Nervous Systems: An African Perspective"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Alvin Pumelele","family":"Ndondo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian","family":"Eley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jo Madeleine","family":"Wilmshurst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelina","family":"Kakooza-Mwesige","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Pia","family":"Giannoccaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hugh J.","family":"Willison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pedro M. Rodr\u00edguez","family":"Cruz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeannine M.","family":"Heckmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathleen","family":"Bateman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Vincent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-020-10261-3","article-title":"The Neurological Sequelae of Pandemics and Epidemics","volume":"268","author":"Valerio","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16033","article-title":"Global Research Priorities for Infections That Affect the Nervous System","volume":"527","author":"John","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9040301","article-title":"Systematic Review of Important Viral Diseases in Africa in Light of the \u2018One Health\u2019 Concept","volume":"9","author":"Chauhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27211","article-title":"Viral Infections Amidst COVID-19 in Africa: Implications and Recommendations","volume":"93","author":"Uwishema","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Med Virol"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v11111017","article-title":"Measles Encephalitis: Towards New Therapeutics","volume":"11","author":"Ferren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2020.03.003","article-title":"Measles Virus Persistence and Its Consequences","volume":"41","author":"Griffin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Opin Virol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2021.117314","article-title":"Onchocerciasis in Tropical Neurology: A Scoping Review","volume":"421","author":"Luna","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00340-6","article-title":"Measles Immunisation Gaps in Africa","volume":"21","author":"Bagcchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30476-4","article-title":"The Growing Burden of Neurological Disorders in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries: Priorities for Policy Making","volume":"19","author":"Winkler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa044","article-title":"The Changing Global Epidemiology of Measles, 2013-2018","volume":"222","author":"Patel","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-017-0233-9","article-title":"Global Research Trends of World Health Organization\u2019s Top Eight Emerging Pathogens","volume":"13","author":"Sweileh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Global Health"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e307","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268819002061","article-title":"Infectious Disease Outbreaks in the African Region: Overview of Events Reported to the World Health Organization in 2018 - ERRATUM","volume":"147","author":"Mboussou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.664664","article-title":"Autoimmune Disorders of the Nervous System: Pathophysiology, Clinical Features, and Therapy","volume":"12","author":"Bhagavati","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.1RU1117-428R","article-title":"Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Function During Inflammation and Autoimmunity","volume":"103","author":"Sonar","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Leukoc Biol"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245077","article-title":"Immune Alterations in Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis Reflect an Incompetent Response to Eliminate the Measles Virus","volume":"16","author":"Yentur","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e59","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab187","article-title":"The Neuroinflammation Collection: A Vision for Expanding Neuro-Immune Crosstalk in Brain","volume":"144","author":"Irani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00206","article-title":"Neuroimmunology: An Expanding Frontier in Autoimmunity","volume":"6","author":"Hoftberger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792578","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/792578","article-title":"Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy: An Underrecognized Clinicoradiologic Disorder","volume":"2015","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mediators Inflamm"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e928374","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.928374","article-title":"Influenza-Associated Encephalopathy and Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy in Children: A Retrospective Single-Center Study","volume":"27","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med Sci Monit"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.634827","article-title":"Neurologic Manifestations of the World Health Organization\u2019s List of Pandemic and Epidemic Diseases","volume":"12","author":"McEntire","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jis535","article-title":"2009 Pandemic Influenza A Virus Subtype H1N1 Vaccination in Africa\u2014Successes and Challenges","volume":"206","author":"Mihigo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0b013e3283402bfe","article-title":"The Interplay of Infection and Genetics in Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy","volume":"22","author":"Neilson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Opin Pediatr"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3906\/sag-2102-47","article-title":"Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy of Childhood: A Single-Center Experience","volume":"51","author":"Aksoy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Turk J Med Sci"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102194","article-title":"Genetic Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy Associated With RANBP2: Clinical and Therapeutic Implications in Pediatrics","volume":"43","author":"Levine","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult Scler Relat Disord"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2021.655074","article-title":"The Clinical and Imaging Characteristics Associated With Neurological Sequelae of Pediatric Patients With Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Pediatr"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymgmr.2020.100627","article-title":"RANBP2 Susceptibility to Infection-Induced Encephalopathy: Clinicoradiologic and Molecular Description in a Malaysian Family","volume":"24","author":"Chew","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol Genet Metab Rep"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000025171","article-title":"Radiological Manifestation of Familial Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy With RANBP2 Mutation in a Far-East Asian Family: Case Report","volume":"100","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med (Baltimore)"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2008.12.009","article-title":"Infection-Triggered Familial or Recurrent Cases of Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy Caused by Mutations in a Component of the Nuclear Pore, RANBP2","volume":"84","author":"Neilson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Hum Genet"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2008.03.005","article-title":"Outcome of Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy in Relation to Treatment With Corticosteroids and Gammaglobulin","volume":"31","author":"Okumura","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Dev"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000001650","article-title":"Influenza-Associated Encephalitis\/Encephalopathy Identified by the Australian Childhood Encephalitis Study 2013-2015","volume":"36","author":"Britton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.15018","article-title":"Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy Associated With SARS-CoV-2 Exposure in a Pediatric Patient","volume":"13","author":"Lazarte-Rantes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2020201187","article-title":"COVID-19-Associated Acute Hemorrhagic Necrotizing Encephalopathy: Imaging Features","volume":"296","author":"Poyiadji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073811420601","article-title":"Child Neurology Services in Africa","volume":"26","author":"Wilmshurst","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Child Neurol"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2008.03225.x","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid Neopterin in Paediatric Neurology: A Marker of Active Central Nervous System Inflammation","volume":"51","author":"Dale","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1318","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.1318","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid Metabolomics: Detection of Neuroinflammation in Human Central Nervous System Disease","volume":"10","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Transl Immunol"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30129-X","article-title":"Measles: A Global Resurgence","volume":"19","author":"Cousins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-020-01843-z","article-title":"Vaccination Strategies for Measles Control and Elimination: Time to Strengthen Local Initiatives","volume":"19","author":"Cutts","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa045","article-title":"What It Will Take to Achieve a World Without Measles","volume":"222","author":"Cochi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30052-9","article-title":"Measles Eradication\u2014Retreating Is Not an Option","volume":"20","author":"Durrheim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)01337-4","article-title":"Estimating Global and Regional Disruptions to Routine Childhood Vaccine Coverage During the COVID-19 Pandemic in 2020: A Modelling Study","volume":"398","author":"Causey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2020.03.002","article-title":"Measles Pathogenesis, Immune Suppression and Animal Models","volume":"41","author":"Laksono","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Opin Virol"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-015-1511-3","article-title":"Neurotropic Virus Infections as the Cause of Immediate and Delayed Neuropathology","volume":"131","author":"Ludlow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2012.02.003","article-title":"Measles Virus and Associated Central Nervous System Sequelae","volume":"19","author":"Buchanan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJnew.7788","article-title":"Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis in South African Children Following the Measles Outbreak Between 2009 and 2011","volume":"105","author":"Kija","year":"2015","journal-title":"S Afr Med J"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-10-283","article-title":"Molecular Characterisation of Virus in the Brains of Patients With Measles Inclusion Body Encephalitis (MIBE)","volume":"10","author":"Hardie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virol J"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.14166","article-title":"Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis: Clinical Phenotype, Epidemiology, and Preventive Interventions","volume":"61","author":"Mekki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198112103052401","article-title":"Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and Mucosal Candidiasis in Previously Healthy Homosexual Men: Evidence of a New Acquired Cellular Immunodeficiency","volume":"305","author":"Gottlieb","year":"1981","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B48","unstructured":"Fact Sheet 2021: Preliminary UNAIDS 2021 Epidemiological Estimates"},{"key":"B49","volume-title":"WHO Case Definitions of HIV for Surveillance and Revised Clinical Staging and Immunological Classification of HIV-Related Disease in Adults and Children","year":"2007"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v19i2.19","article-title":"Neurological Disorders in HIV in Africa: A Review","volume":"19","author":"Howlett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Afr Health Sci"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1568-9972(02)00086-1","article-title":"HIV and Autoimmunity","volume":"1","author":"Zandman-Goddard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Autoimmun Rev"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35073658","article-title":"Cellular Immune Responses to HIV","volume":"410","author":"McMichael","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000231","article-title":"Immune Activation and Paediatric HIV-1 Disease Outcome","volume":"11","author":"Roider","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr Opin HIV AIDS"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000242","article-title":"Role of Immune Activation in Progression to AIDS","volume":"11","author":"Utay","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr Opin HIV AIDS"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12940","article-title":"Cell Death by Pyroptosis Drives CD4 T-Cell Depletion in HIV-1 Infection","volume":"505","author":"Doitsh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI80566","article-title":"HIV-Specific CD8(+) T Cells and HIV Eradication","volume":"126","author":"Jones","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-11-013383","article-title":"Loss of Memory B Cells Impairs Maintenance of Long-Term Serologic Memory During HIV-1 Infection","volume":"108","author":"Titanji","year":"2006","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0901702106","article-title":"Timing of HAART Defines the Integrity of Memory B Cells and the Longevity of Humoral Responses in HIV-1 Vertically-Infected Children","volume":"106","author":"Pensieroso","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-016-0310-3","article-title":"NK Cells in HIV Disease","volume":"13","author":"Scully","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr HIV\/AIDS Rep"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-015-1911-5","article-title":"Natural Killer Cell Heterogeneity: Cellular Dysfunction and Significance in HIV-1 Immuno-Pathogenesis","volume":"72","author":"Ansari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Mol Life Sci"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.12.8.889-895.2005","article-title":"Phagocytic Activity in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection","volume":"12","author":"Pugliese","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin Diagn Lab Immunol"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0463.2003.11107809.x","article-title":"The Role of Dendritic Cells in the Pathogenesis of HIV-1 Infection","volume":"111","author":"Lore","year":"2003","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198308253090803","article-title":"Abnormalities of B-Cell Activation and Immunoregulation in Patients With the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome","volume":"309","author":"Lane","year":"1983","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1679","article-title":"Cross-Presentation of Caspase-Cleaved Apoptotic Self Antigens in HIV Infection","volume":"13","author":"Rawson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1207-1413","article-title":"Dying T Cells Trigger Autoimmunity in HIV","volume":"13","author":"Rowland-Jones","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2004.09.007","article-title":"Exclusion of HIV Epitopes Shared With Human Proteins Is Prerequisite for Designing Safer AIDS Vaccines","volume":"31","author":"Maksyutov","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Clin Virol"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/647916","article-title":"New Insights About Treg and Th17 Cells in HIV Infection and Disease Progression","volume":"2015","author":"Valverde-Villegas","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Immunol Res"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/908314","article-title":"Regulatory T Cells in HIV Infection: Can Immunotherapy Regulate the Regulator","volume":"2012","author":"Jenabian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin Dev Immunol"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000005769","article-title":"Autoimmune Diseases and HIV Infection: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"96","author":"Virot","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med (Baltimore)"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001603","article-title":"Epidemiology of Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases in a French Nationwide HIV Cohort","volume":"31","author":"Lebrun","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-021-00467-y","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries: Challenges and Prospects","volume":"17","author":"Papri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(89)90730-x","article-title":"HIV Infection Presenting as Guillain-Barre Syndrome in Lusaka, Zambia","volume":"83","author":"Conlon","year":"1989","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-021-02350-1","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome as the First Presentation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection","volume":"21","author":"Lopes","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkz573","article-title":"Acute Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy Following Interruption of Antiretroviral Treatment and HIV Rebound","volume":"75","author":"Malano","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Antimicrob Chemother"},{"key":"B75","article-title":"Guillain\u2013Barre Syndrome Following Immune Reconstitution After Antiretroviral Therapy for Primary HIV Infection","volume":"12","author":"Teo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J HIV Ther"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000195618.55453.9a","article-title":"Immune Reconstitution Syndrome After Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Thai Children","volume":"25","author":"Puthanakit","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/jinf.2001.0917","article-title":"Recurrent Guillain-Barre Syndrome as a Complication of Immune Reconstitution in HIV","volume":"44","author":"Makela","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/368311","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Associated With Immune Reconstitution","volume":"36","author":"Piliero","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/wnl.41.6.812","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Associated With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Zimbabwe","volume":"41","author":"Thornton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1996.tb00169.x","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Northern Tanzania: A Comparison of Epidemiological and Clinical Findings With Western Norway","volume":"93","author":"Howlett","year":"1996","journal-title":"Acta Neurol Scand"},{"key":"B81","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Ethiopian Patients","volume":"43","author":"Melaku","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ethiop Med J"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70002-4","article-title":"Manifestations of HIV Infection in the Peripheral Nervous System","volume":"12","author":"Center","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2015.11.013","article-title":"CIDP in a HIV Endemic Population: A Prospective Case Series From Johannesburg, South Africa","volume":"363","author":"Mochan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000315","article-title":"A Comparative Study of CIDP in a Cohort of HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Patients","volume":"4","author":"Moodley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073810375717","article-title":"Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in a Child Presenting as Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis","volume":"26","author":"Tullu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Child Neurol"},{"key":"B86","article-title":"HIV and Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis","volume":"89","author":"Bhigjee","year":"1999","journal-title":"S Afr Med J"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-016-0481-0","article-title":"Atypical Presentations of Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM) in HIV Infection","volume":"23","author":"Naidoo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Neurovirol"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1020274","article-title":"Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis: An Unusual Presentation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection","volume":"2020","author":"Mart\u00ednez-Ayala","year":"2020","journal-title":"Case Rep Infect Dis"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12659\/ajcr.903108","article-title":"Comorbid Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Muscle-Specific Kinase (MuSK) Myasthenia Gravis: A Case Report and Literature Review","volume":"18","author":"Sherpa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Case Rep"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002338","article-title":"Anti-NMDA-Receptor Encephalitis in an Adolescent With HIV Infection and Review of the Literature","volume":"38","author":"Pinzon-Charry","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-017-0603-3","article-title":"HIV-Associated Opsoclonus-Myoclonus-Ataxia Syndrome: Early Infection, Immune Reconstitution Syndrome or Secondary to Other Diseases? Case Report and Literature Review","volume":"24","author":"Guedes","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neurovirol"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4102\/sajhivmed.v18i1.684","article-title":"The Neuromyelitis Optica Presentation and the Aquaporin-4 Antibody in HIV-Seropositive and Seronegative Patients in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa","volume":"18","author":"Bhigjee","year":"2017","journal-title":"South Afr J HIV Med"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.628296","article-title":"HIV-Associated CD8 Encephalitis: A UK Case Series and Review of Histopathologically Confirmed Cases","volume":"12","author":"Lucas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24875\/AIDSRev.20000132","article-title":"CD8 + T-Lymphocyte Encephalitis: A Systematic Review","volume":"22","author":"Santana","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIDS Rev"},{"key":"B95","unstructured":"Onchocerciasis. Fact Sheets"},{"key":"B96","unstructured":"Elimination of Human Onchocerciasis: Progress Report, 2019\u20132020; 546 WEEKLY EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RECORD, NO 452020"},{"key":"B97","first-page":"389","article-title":"Human Onchocerciasis in Africa","volume":"57","author":"Boussinesq","year":"1997","journal-title":"Med Trop (Mars)"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)12450-3","article-title":"Onchocerciasis","volume":"351","author":"Burnham","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2017.11.009","article-title":"Onchocerciasis-Associated Epilepsy, an Additional Reason for Strengthening Onchocerciasis Elimination Programs","volume":"34","author":"Colebunders","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3024.2000.00345.x","article-title":"Immune Mechanisms in Onchocerca Volvulus-Mediated Corneal Disease (River Blindness)","volume":"22","author":"Pearlman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol"},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.75.3.163","article-title":"Ocular Manifestations of Onchocerciasis in a Rain-Forest Area of West Africa","volume":"75","author":"Newland","year":"1991","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70321-6","article-title":"Clinical, Neurological, and Electrophysiological Features of Nodding Syndrome in Kitgum, Uganda: An Observational Case Series","volume":"12","author":"Sejvar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B103","article-title":"Dermatologic Manifestations of Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) Clinical Presentation","author":"Okulicz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Medscape"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1086\/509325","article-title":"Recent Updates on Onchocerciasis: Diagnosis and Treatment","volume":"44","author":"Udall","year":"2007","journal-title":"CID"},{"key":"B105","article-title":"Endemic Dwarfism in Uganda","volume":"27","author":"Raper","year":"1950","journal-title":"East Afr Med J"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(97)90009-2","article-title":"Epilepsy, Retarded Growth and Onchocerciasis, in Two Areas of Different Endemicity of Onchocerciasis in Burundi","volume":"91","author":"Newell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1996.54.80","article-title":"The Nakalanga Syndrome in Kabarole District, Western Uganda","volume":"54","author":"Kipp","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005201","article-title":"Nakalanga Syndrome: Clinical Characteristics, Potential Causes, and Its Relationship With Recently Described Nodding Syndrome","volume":"11","author":"Foger","year":"2017","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1909.130401","article-title":"Nodding Syndrome","volume":"19","author":"Dowell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"(5)","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2012-002540","article-title":"Nodding Syndrome in Ugandan Children\u2014Clinical Features, Brain Imaging and Complications: A Case Series","volume":"3","author":"Idro","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.12483","article-title":"A Longitudinal Study on Nodding Syndrome \u2013 A New African Epilepsy Disorder","volume":"55","author":"Winkler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2001083255","article-title":"A Controlled Pro- Spective Trial of the Prophylactic Effect of a Single Dose of Ivermectin Against Onchocerca Volvulus","volume":"8","author":"Boussinesq","year":"2001","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"B113","article-title":"Microfilariae in the Cerebrospinal Fluid, and Neurological Complications, During Treatment of Onchocerciasis With Diethylcarbamazine","volume":"27","author":"Duke","year":"1976","journal-title":"Tropenmed Parasitol"},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182010000338","article-title":"The Role of Onchocerca Volvulus in the Development of Epilepsy in a Rural Area of Tanzania","volume":"137","author":"Konig","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9394(60)92670-2","article-title":"The Pathogenesis and Pathology of Ocular Onchocerciasis","volume":"49","author":"Rodger","year":"1960","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X00022653","article-title":"Microfilariae of Onchocerca Volvulus in Blood and Urine Before, During, and After Treatment With Diethylcarbamazine","volume":"48","author":"Fuglsang","year":"1974","journal-title":"J Helminthol"},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12553","article-title":"Autoimmune Encephalopathies","volume":"1338","author":"Leypoldt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann NY Acad Sci"},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2003.11.003","article-title":"Pathogenesis and Host Responses in Human Onchocerciasis: Impact of Onchocerca Filariae and Wolbachia Endobacteria","volume":"6","author":"Brattig","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaf6953","article-title":"Nodding Syndrome May Be an Autoimmune Reaction to the Parasitic Worm Onchocerca Volvulus","volume":"9","author":"Johnson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/320709","article-title":"Early Human Infection With Onchocerca Volvulus Is Associated With an Enhanced Parasite-Specific Cellular Immune Response","volume":"183","author":"Cooper","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B121","article-title":"Antigenic Mimicry: Onchocerca Volvulus Antigen-Specific T Cells and Ocular Inflammation","volume":"43","author":"McKechnie","year":"2002","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.140.6.1999","article-title":"Cell-Mediated Immune Responses in Human Infection With Onchocerca Volvulus","volume":"140","author":"Gallin","year":"1988","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3207","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.167.6.3207","article-title":"Modulation of Human T Cell Responses and Macrophage Functions by Onchocystatin, a Secreted Protein of the Filarial Nematode\u2014Onchocerca Volvulus","volume":"167","author":"Sch\u00f6nemeyer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(02)00014-X","article-title":"Antigen-Specific T Regulatory-1 Cells Are Associated With Immunosuppression in a Chronic Helminth Infection (Onchocerciasis)","volume":"4","author":"Satoguina","year":"2002","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2249.1996.d01-747.x","article-title":"Immunoregulation in Onchocerciasis: Predominance of Th1-Type Responsiveness to Low Molecular Weight Antigens of Onchocerca Volvulus in Exposed Individuals Without Microfilaridermia and Clinical Disease","volume":"105","author":"L\u00fcder","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clin Exp Immunol"},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/317623","article-title":"Filarial Infections Increase Susceptibility to Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells In Vitro","volume":"182","author":"Gopinath","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0007300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibror.2019.07.1581","article-title":"Onchocerciasis-Associated Epilepsy in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Clinical Description and Relationship With Microfilarial Density","volume":"13","author":"Siewe Fodjo","year":"2019","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30713-8","article-title":"Onchocerciasis-Associated Epilepsy","volume":"19","author":"Gal\u00e1n-Puchades","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2249.1999.01015.x","article-title":"Onchocerciasis Modulates the Immune Response to Mycobacterial Antigens","volume":"117","author":"Stewart","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin Exp Immunol"},{"key":"B130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiz307","article-title":"Integrating Multiple Biomarkers to Increase Sensitivity for the Detection of Onchocerca Volvulus Infection","volume":"221","author":"Bennuru","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2006.01750.x","article-title":"Evaluation of the Diethylcarbamazine Patch to Evaluate Onchocerciasis Endemicity in Central Africa","volume":"12","author":"Ozoh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"B132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/169.3.686","article-title":"Polymerase Chain Reaction-Based Diagnosis of Onchocerca Volvulus Infection: Improved Detection of Patients With Onchocerciasis","volume":"169","author":"Zimmerman","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00034980050006438","article-title":"A Comparison of Newer Tests for the Diagnosis of Onchocerciasis","volume":"94","author":"Vincent","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann Trop Med Parasitol"},{"key":"B134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2004.01384.x","article-title":"Development and Evaluation of an Antigen Detection Dipstick Assay for the Diagnosis of Human Onchocerciasis","volume":"10","author":"Ayong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"B135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/367709","article-title":"Immune Responses Directed Against Microfiliaria Correlate With Severity of Clinic Onchodermatitis and Treatment History","volume":"187","author":"Ali","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.1992.tb06971.x","article-title":"Ivermectinfacilitated Immunity in Onchocerciasis. Reversal of Lymphocytopenia, Cellular Anergy and Deficient Cytokine Production After Single Treatment","volume":"89","author":"Soboslay","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin Exp Immunol"},{"key":"B137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006904","article-title":"On-Going Transmission of Human Onchocerciasis in the Massangam Health District in the West Region of Cameroon: Better Understanding Transmission Dynamics to Inform Changes in Programmatic Interventions","volume":"12","author":"Bakajika","year":"2018","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)00339-1","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome","volume":"388","author":"Willison","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-021-00467-y","article-title":"Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries: Challenges and Prospects","volume":"17","author":"Papri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"B140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jns.12469","article-title":"Antecedent Infections in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Endemic Areas of Arbovirus Transmission: A Multinational Case-Control Study","volume":"26","author":"Leonhard","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Peripher Nerv Syst"},{"key":"B141","unstructured":"International Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Outcome Study (IGOS)"},{"key":"B142","volume-title":"GBS100: Celebrating a Century of Progress in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome","author":"Willison","year":"2016"},{"key":"B143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0250-9","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Ten Steps","volume":"15","author":"Leonhard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"B144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245951","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Reveal That Campylobacter Spp. And Antibiotic Resistance Are Widespread in Humans in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"16","author":"Hlashwayo","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.supp.2020.35.2.25003","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Associated With COVID-19 Infection","volume":"35","author":"Manji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pan Afr Med J"},{"key":"B146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01556-7","article-title":"Neurological Complications After First Dose of COVID-19 Vaccines and SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"27","author":"Patone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-022862","article-title":"Small Volume Plasma Exchange for Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Resource-Limited Settings: A Phase II Safety and Feasibility Study","volume":"8","author":"Islam","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"B148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2398212818817497","article-title":"Antibody-Mediated Central Nervous System Diseases","volume":"2","author":"Giannoccaro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Neurosci Adv"},{"key":"B149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30244-3","article-title":"An Update on Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis for Neurologists and Psychiatrists: Mechanisms and Models","volume":"18","author":"Dalmau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25131","article-title":"Autoimmune Encephalitis Epidemiology and a Comparison to Infectious Encephalitis","volume":"83","author":"Dubey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/fmx070","article-title":"Case Presentation of Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis in a 4-Year-Old Boy","volume":"64","author":"Gbadero","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Trop Pediatr"},{"key":"B152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21756","article-title":"Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor (NMDAR) Encephalitis in Children and Adolescents","volume":"66","author":"Florance","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0167-10.2010","article-title":"Cellular and Synaptic Mechanisms of Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis","volume":"30","author":"Hughes","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"B154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awu310","article-title":"Human N-Methyl D-Aspartate Receptor Antibodies Alter Memory and Behaviour in Mice","volume":"138","author":"Planagum\u00e0","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awv257","article-title":"Epileptogenic Effects of NMDAR Antibodies in a Passive Transfer Mouse Model","volume":"138","author":"Wright","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.20614","article-title":"Paraneoplastic Encephalitis, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Hypoventilation in Ovarian Teratoma","volume":"58","author":"Vitaliani","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21050","article-title":"Paraneoplastic Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis Associated With Ovarian Teratoma","volume":"61","author":"Dalmau","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70310-1","article-title":"Treatment and Prognostic Factors for Long-Term Outcome in Patients With Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis: An Observational Cohort Study","volume":"12","author":"Titulaer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25173","article-title":"N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Antibody Production From Germinal Center Reactions: Therapeutic Implications","volume":"83","author":"Makuch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000353982","article-title":"Immunopathological Significance of Ovarian Teratoma in Patients With Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis","volume":"71","author":"Tabata","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur Neurol"},{"key":"B161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-019-0693-7","article-title":"Immunopathological Characterization of Ovarian Teratomas Associated With Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis","volume":"7","author":"Chefdeville","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol Commun"},{"key":"B162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PAS.0000000000001249","article-title":"Ovarian Teratomas in Women With Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis: Topography and Composition of Immune Cell and Neuroglial Populations Is Compatible With an Autoimmune Mechanism of Disease","volume":"43","author":"Nolan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Surg Pathol"},{"key":"B163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-009-0582-4","article-title":"Evidence for Antibody-Mediated Pathogenesis in Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis Associated With Ovarian Teratoma","volume":"118","author":"T\u00fcz\u00fcn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol"},{"key":"B164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2014.488","article-title":"Abnormal Neurons in Teratomas in NMDAR Encephalitis","volume":"71","author":"Day","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"B165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30244-8","article-title":"Spanish Herpes Simplex Encephalitis Study Group. Frequency, Symptoms, Risk Factors, and Outcomes of Autoimmune Encephalitis After Herpes Simplex Encephalitis: A Prospective Observational Study and Retrospective Analysis","volume":"17","author":"Armangue","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25623","article-title":"Herpes Simplex Encephalitis Relapse With Chorea Is Associated With Autoantibodies to N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor or Dopamine-2 Receptor","volume":"29","author":"Mohammad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"B167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25626","article-title":"N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Antibodies in Post\u2013Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis Neurological Relapse","volume":"29","author":"Hacohen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"B168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000002125","article-title":"Spanish Prospective Multicentric Study of Autoimmunity in Herpes Simplex Encephalitis. Autoimmune Post-Herpes Simplex Encephalitis of Adults and Teenagers","volume":"85","author":"Armangue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000001072","article-title":"VZV Brainstem Encephalitis Triggers NMDA Receptor Immunoreaction","volume":"83","author":"Sch\u00e4bitz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1675607","article-title":"Japanese Encephalitis Virus-Induced Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis: A Case Report and Review of Literature","volume":"50","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropediatrics"},{"key":"B171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-019-09693-3","article-title":"Possible N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Antibody-Mediated Encephalitis in the Setting of HIV Cerebrospinal Fluid Escape","volume":"267","author":"Moloney","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"B172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2020.10.002","article-title":"N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis Associated With COVID-19 Infection in a Toddler","volume":"114","author":"Burr","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"B173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2020.07.006","article-title":"Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis Presenting as New Onset Refractory Status Epilepticus in COVID-19","volume":"81","author":"Monti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"B174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.05.054","article-title":"Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis in a Psychiatric Covid-19 Patient: A Case Report","volume":"87","author":"Panariello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun"},{"key":"B175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(08)70224-2","article-title":"Anti-NMDAreceptor Encephalitis: Case Series and Analysis of the Effects of Antibodies","volume":"7","author":"Dalmau","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182698cd8","article-title":"Extreme Delta Brush: A Unique EEG Pattern in Adults With Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis","volume":"79","author":"Schmitt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/IMCRJ.S311071","article-title":"Fatal Autoimmune Anti-NMDA-Receptor Encephalitis With Poor Prognostication Score in a Young Kenyan Female","volume":"14","author":"Rakiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int Med Case Rep J"},{"key":"B178","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00401-9","article-title":"A Clinical Approach to Diagnosis of Autoimmune Encephalitis","volume":"15","author":"Graus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B179","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.13579","article-title":"High Sensitivity and Specificity in Proposed Clinical Diagnostic Criteria for Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis","volume":"59","author":"Ho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"key":"B180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-017-0974-3","article-title":"Application of the 2016 Diagnostic Approach for Autoimmune Encephalitis From Lancet Neurology to Chinese Patients","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"key":"B181","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.13448","article-title":"Herpes Simplex Virus-Induced Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis: A Systematic Literature Review With Analysis of 43 Cases","volume":"59","author":"Nosadini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"key":"B182","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-016-0442-6","article-title":"Tocilizumab in Autoimmune Encephalitis Refractory to Rituximab: An Institutional Cohort Study","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"B183","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2016.2588","article-title":"Bortezomib Treatment for Patients With Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis","volume":"73","author":"Behrendt","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"B184","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(10)70253-2","article-title":"Clinical Experience and Laboratory Investigations in Patients With Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis","volume":"10","author":"Dalmau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2010.09.012","article-title":"Anti-NMDA-Receptor Encephalitis: A Severe, Multistage, Treatable Disorder Presenting With Psychosis","volume":"231","author":"Wandinger","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"B186","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201801-051OC","article-title":"Intensive Care Outcomes and Mortality Prediction at a National Referral Hospital in Western Kenya","volume":"15","author":"Lalani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc"},{"key":"B187","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-041808","article-title":"Protocol for DexEnceph: A Randomised Controlled Trial of Dexamethasone Therapy in Adults With Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis","volume":"11","author":"Whitfield","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"B188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s42466-019-0031-3","article-title":"The German Trial on Aciclovir and Corticosteroids in Herpes-Simplex-Virus-Encephalitis (GACHE): A Multicenter, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial","volume":"1","author":"Meyding-Lamad\u00e9","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurol Res Pract"},{"key":"B189","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-10-46","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Population Based Epidemiological Studies in Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"10","author":"Carr","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"key":"B190","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-019-0079-y","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"5","author":"Gilhus","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Prim"},{"key":"B191","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.24348","article-title":"Incidence of Acetylcholine Receptor-Antibody-Positive Myasthenia Gravis in South Africa","volume":"51","author":"Mombaur","year":"2015","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"B192","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2015.10.009","article-title":"Epidemiology of Myasthenia Gravis in Ontario, Canada","volume":"26","author":"Breiner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuromuscul Disord"},{"key":"B193","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2013-304788","article-title":"How Common Is Childhood Myasthenia? The UK Incidence and Prevalence of Autoimmune and Congenital Myasthenia","volume":"99","author":"Parr","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child"},{"key":"B194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.37.12.1854","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis: Population Differences in Disease Expression and Acetylcholine Receptor Antibody Titers Between Chinese and Caucasians","volume":"37","author":"Chiu","year":"1987","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4103\/1117-1936.175146","article-title":"Clinical Manifestations of Myasthenia Gravis - Review of Cases Seen at the Lagos University Teaching Hospital","volume":"11","author":"Ojini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Niger Postgrad Med J"},{"key":"B196","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurol.2015.01.337","article-title":"La Myasth\u00e9nie Auto-Immune De L\u2019adulte Lors D\u2019une Consultation D\u00e9centralis\u00e9e De Neurologie Au Centre Hospitalier National De Pikine Dans La Banlieue De Dakar-S\u00e9n\u00e9gal","volume":"171","author":"Fall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev Neurol (Paris)"},{"key":"B197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15761\/JBN.1000112","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis at Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso): About 14 Cases","volume":"1","author":"Djingri Labodi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Nerves"},{"key":"B198","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2017.04.009","article-title":"Selective or Predominant Triceps Muscle Weakness in African-American Patients With Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"27","author":"Abraham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuromuscul Disord"},{"key":"B199","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2007.07.002","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis in South Africans: Racial Differences in Clinical Manifestations","volume":"17","author":"Heckmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuromuscul Disord"},{"key":"B200","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJ.5390","article-title":"The Characteristics of Juvenile Myasthenia Gravis Among South Africans","volume":"102","author":"Heckmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"South Afr Med J"},{"key":"B201","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2019.00136","article-title":"Using Whole Genome Sequencing in an African Subphenotype of Myasthenia Gravis to Generate a Pathogenetic Hypothesis","volume":"10","author":"Nel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Genet"},{"key":"B202","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13023-019-1003-y","article-title":"Profiling of Patient-Specific Myocytes Identifies Altered Gene Expression in the Ophthalmoplegic Subphenotype of Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"14","author":"Nel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Orphanet J Rare Dis"},{"key":"B203","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1186\/s13023-020-01629-9","article-title":"Gene Expression Profiling of Orbital Muscles in Treatment-Resistant Ophthalmoplegic Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"15","author":"Europa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Orphanet J Rare Dis"},{"key":"B204","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.26172","article-title":"Myasthenic Ophthalmoparesis: Time To Resolution After Initiating Immune Therapies","volume":"58","author":"Europa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"B205","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2013.12.011","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis: A Comprehensive Review of Immune Dysregulation and Etiological Mechanisms","volume":"52","author":"Berrih-Aknin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Autoimmun"},{"key":"B206","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awg223","article-title":"Clinical Correlates With Anti-MuSK Antibodies in Generalized Seronegative Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"126","author":"Evoli","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B207","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.25154","article-title":"Characteristics of AChR Antibody-Negative Myasthenia Gravis in a South African Cohort","volume":"54","author":"Huda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"B208","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00145-3","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis: Subgroup Classification and Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"14","author":"Gilhus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B209","unstructured":"21st WHO Model List of Essential Medicines2019"},{"key":"B210","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-11-97","article-title":"A Single-Blinded Trial of Methotrexate Versus Azathioprine as Steroid-Sparing Agents in Generalized Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"11","author":"Heckmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"key":"B211","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.05.13.20100727","article-title":"National Estimates of Critical Care Capacity in 54 African Countries","author":"Craig","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"key":"B212","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.12-0114","article-title":"Artesunate for Severe Acute Plasmodium Falciparum Infection in a Patient With Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"87","author":"Dournon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"B213","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.24769","article-title":"Efficacy of Prednisone for the Treatment of Ocular Myasthenia (EPITOME): A Randomized, Controlled Trial","volume":"53","author":"Benatar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"B214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/JGO.19.00204","article-title":"Operational Strategies for Clinical Trials in Africa","volume":"6","author":"Graef","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCO Glob Oncol"},{"key":"B215","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00775","article-title":"Management Issues in Myasthenia Gravis Patients Living With HIV: A Case Series and Literature Review","volume":"11","author":"Heckmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"B216","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2021.117447","article-title":"Tuberculosis in Myasthenia Gravis Patients on Immunosuppressive Therapy in a High-Risk Area: Implications for Preventative Therapy","volume":"425","author":"Steyn","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"B217","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2012.06817.x","article-title":"The Myasthenia Gravis\u2013Specific Activities of Daily Living Profile","volume":"1274","author":"Muppidi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann NY Acad Sci"},{"key":"B218","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S325173","article-title":"Epidemiology of Measles in Bale Zone, Southeast Ethiopia: Analysis of Surveillance Data From 2013 to 2019","volume":"14","author":"Tsegaye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Risk Manag Healthc Policy"},{"key":"B219","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)33066-1","article-title":"Global Surge in Measles Should be \u201cA Wake-Up Call\u201d","volume":"394","author":"Holt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.833548\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,18]],"date-time":"2023-11-18T16:25:17Z","timestamp":1700324717000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.833548\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]]},"references-count":219,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2022.833548"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.833548","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]]},"article-number":"833548"}}