{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T02:35:57Z","timestamp":1793414157347,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]],"date-time":"2022-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Immunocompromised individuals, including multiple sclerosis (MS) patients on certain immunotherapy treatments, are considered susceptible to complications from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and specific vaccination regimens have been recommended for suitable protection. MS patients receiving anti-CD20 therapy (aCD20-MS) are considered especially vulnerable due to acquired B-cell depletion and impaired antibody production in response to virus infection and COVID-19 vaccination. Here, the humoral and cellular responses are analyzed in a group of aCD20-MS patients (n=43) compared to a healthy control cohort (n=34) during the first 6 months after a 2-dose cycle mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination. Both IgG antibodies recognizing receptor binding domain (RBD) from CoV-2 spike protein and their blocking activity against RBD-hACE2 binding were significantly reduced in aCD20-MS patients, with a seroconversion rate of only 23.8%. Interestingly, even under conditions of severe B-cell depletion and failed seroconversion, a significantly higher polyfunctional IFN\u03b3<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> and IL-2<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> T-cell response and strong T-cell proliferation capacity were detected compared to controls. Moreover, no difference in T-cell response was observed between forms of disease (relapsing remitting- vs progressive-MS), anti-CD20 therapy (Rituximab vs Ocrelizumab) and type of mRNA-based vaccine received (mRNA-1273 vs BNT162b2). These results suggest the generation of a partial adaptive immune response to COVID-19 vaccination in B-cell depleted MS individuals driven by a functionally competent T-cell arm. Investigation into the role of the cellular immune response is important to identifying the level of protection against SARS-CoV-2 in aCD20-MS patients and could have potential implications for future vaccine design and application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.926318","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]],"date-time":"2022-08-05T06:43:54Z","timestamp":1659681834000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Strong T-cell activation in response to COVID-19 vaccination in multiple sclerosis patients receiving B-cell depleting therapies"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Roberto","family":"Alfonso-Dunn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jerry","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vanessa","family":"Kirschner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joyce","family":"Lei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grant","family":"Feuer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michaela","family":"Malin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiayuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Morgan","family":"Roche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saud A.","family":"Sadiq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2113017","article-title":"Efficacy of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine at completion of blinded phase","volume":"385","author":"El Sahly","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2110345","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA covid-19 vaccine through 6 months","volume":"385","author":"Thomas","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2101544","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against covid-19","volume":"384","author":"Sadoff","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03653-6","article-title":"BNT162b2 vaccine induces neutralizing antibodies and poly-specific T cells in humans","volume":"595","author":"Sahin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2032195","article-title":"Durability of responses after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-1273 vaccination","volume":"384","author":"Widge","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.08.001","article-title":"Rapid induction of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells is associated with coordinated humoral and cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination","volume":"54","author":"Painter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7044e3","article-title":"Effectiveness of 2-dose vaccination with mRNA COVID-19 vaccines against COVID-19-Associated hospitalizations among immunocompromised adults - nine states, January-September 2021","volume":"70","author":"Embi","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6405","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-26602-3","article-title":"Within-host evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in an immunosuppressed COVID-19 patient as a source of immune escape variants","volume":"12","author":"Weigang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2031364","article-title":"Persistence and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in an immunocompromised host","volume":"383","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03291-y","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 evolution during treatment of chronic infection","volume":"592","author":"Kemp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2019.3365","article-title":"Infection risks among patients with multiple sclerosis treated with fingolimod, natalizumab, rituximab, and injectable therapies","volume":"77","author":"Luna","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-021-01117-y","article-title":"Infection mitigation strategies for multiple sclerosis patients on oral and monoclonal disease-modifying therapies","volume":"21","author":"Smith","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00520","article-title":"Infection as an environmental trigger of multiple sclerosis disease exacerbation","volume":"6","author":"Steelman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000010380","article-title":"Effect of ocrelizumab on vaccine responses in patients with multiple sclerosis: The VELOCE study","volume":"95","author":"Bar-Or","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2021004629","article-title":"Vaccine response following anti-CD20 therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 905 patients","volume":"5","author":"Vijenthira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Blood Adv"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26028","article-title":"Disease-modifying therapies and coronavirus disease 2019 severity in multiple sclerosis","volume":"89","author":"Sormani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000012753","article-title":"Associations of disease-modifying therapies with COVID-19 severity in multiple sclerosis","volume":"97","author":"Simpson-Yap","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.0688","article-title":"Outcomes and risk factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in a north American registry of patients with multiple sclerosis","volume":"78","author":"Salter","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2020.2581","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and outcomes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 and multiple sclerosis","volume":"77","author":"Louapre","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103317","article-title":"COVID-19 in multiple sclerosis: Clinically reported outcomes from the UK multiple sclerosis register","volume":"56","author":"Middleton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult Scler Relat Disord"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01507-2","article-title":"Cellular and humoral immune responses following SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in patients with multiple sclerosis on anti-CD20 therapy","volume":"27","author":"Apostolidis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17562864211012835","DOI":"10.1177\/17562864211012835","article-title":"Humoral immune response to COVID-19 mRNA vaccine in patients with multiple sclerosis treated with high-efficacy disease-modifying therapies","volume":"14","author":"Achiron","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther Adv Neurol Disord"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.3599","article-title":"Humoral and T-cell response to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in patients with multiple sclerosis treated with ocrelizumab","volume":"78","author":"Brill","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.103078","article-title":"Development of humoral and cellular immunological memory against SARS-CoV-2 despite b cell depleting treatment in multiple sclerosis","volume":"24","author":"Asplund Hogelin","year":"2021","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.3609","article-title":"Association of disease-modifying treatment and anti-CD20 infusion timing with humoral response to 2 SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients with multiple sclerosis","volume":"78","author":"Disanto","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm3425","article-title":"Immune correlates analysis of the mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine efficacy clinical trial","volume":"375","author":"Gilbert","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01377-8","article-title":"Neutralizing antibody levels are highly predictive of immune protection from symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"27","author":"Khoury","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20552173211057110","DOI":"10.1177\/20552173211057110","article-title":"Clinical features and outcomes of COVID-19 despite SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in people with multiple sclerosis","volume":"7","author":"Rose","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult Scler J Exp Transl Clin"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103458","article-title":"Impact of mass vaccination on SARS-CoV-2 infections among multiple sclerosis patients taking immunomodulatory disease-modifying therapies in England","volume":"57","author":"Garjani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult Scler Relat Disord"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01122-w","article-title":"The T cell immune response against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"23","author":"Moss","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.13091","article-title":"Correlates of protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 disease","author":"Goldblatt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunol Rev"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01355-0","article-title":"Delayed production of neutralizing antibodies correlates with fatal COVID-19","volume":"27","author":"Lucas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2055","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-21856-3","article-title":"T Cell assays differentiate clinical and subclinical SARS-CoV-2 infections from cross-reactive antiviral responses","volume":"12","author":"Ogbe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.108728","article-title":"Early induction of functional SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells associates with rapid viral clearance and mild disease in COVID-19 patients","volume":"34","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4984","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-25312-0","article-title":"Protective humoral and cellular immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 persist up to 1 year after recovery","volume":"12","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2550-z","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell immunity in cases of COVID-19 and SARS, and uninfected controls","volume":"584","author":"Le Bert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04460-3","article-title":"T Cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 spike cross-recognize omicron","volume":"603","author":"Keeton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abo2202","article-title":"Divergent SARS-CoV-2 omicron-reactive T and b cell responses in COVID-19 vaccine recipients","volume":"7","author":"GeurtsvanKessel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Immunol"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.01.015","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induces immunological T cell memory able to cross-recognize variants from alpha to omicron","volume":"185","author":"Tarke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21447","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78506-9","article-title":"Older adults lack SARS CoV-2 cross-reactive T lymphocytes directed to human coronaviruses OC43 and NL63","volume":"10","author":"Saletti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abh1823","article-title":"Cross-reactive CD4(+) T cells enhance SARS-CoV-2 immune responses upon infection and vaccination","volume":"374","author":"Loyal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04186-8","article-title":"Pre-existing polymerase-specific T cells expand in abortive seronegative SARS-CoV-2","volume":"601","author":"Swadling","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abj9853","article-title":"Low-dose mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine generates durable memory enhanced by cross-reactive T cells","volume":"374","author":"Mateus","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01386-7","article-title":"CD8(+) T cells contribute to survival in patients with COVID-19 and hematologic cancer","volume":"27","author":"Bange","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00716-1","article-title":"Disentangling the relative importance of T cell responses in COVID-19: leading actors or supporting cast","volume":"22","author":"Kent","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab954","article-title":"Robust T cell responses in anti-CD20 treated patients following COVID-19 vaccination: a prospective cohort study","author":"Madelon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103636","article-title":"Discordant humoral and T cell immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in people with multiple sclerosis on anti-CD20 therapy","volume":"73","author":"Gadani","year":"2021","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000013108","article-title":"Humoral- and T-Cell-Specific immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in patients with MS using different disease-modifying therapies","volume":"98","author":"Tortorella","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1186\/s42466-021-00158-5","article-title":"Evidence of extensive cellular immune response after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in ocrelizumab-treated patients with multiple sclerosis","volume":"3","author":"Pompsch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol Res Pract"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.02.032","article-title":"The antigenic anatomy of SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain","volume":"184","author":"Dejnirattisai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-021-00743-3","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in infection and vaccination","volume":"18","author":"Bertoletti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Mol Immunol"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.01.007","article-title":"Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19","volume":"184","author":"Sette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nri778","article-title":"Effector and memory T-cell differentiation: implications for vaccine development","volume":"2","author":"Kaech","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-020-00092-2","article-title":"B cell depletion therapies in autoimmune disease: advances and mechanistic insights","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discovery"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2006.06.029","article-title":"Rituximab reduces b cells and T cells in cerebrospinal fluid of multiple sclerosis patients","volume":"180","author":"Cross","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181e24373","article-title":"Rituximab add-on therapy for breakthrough relapsing multiple sclerosis: a 52-week phase II trial","volume":"74","author":"Naismith","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/art.42058","article-title":"Rituximab impairs b-cell response but not T-cell response to COVID-19 vaccine in auto-immune diseases","volume":"74","author":"Bitoun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2021.4381","article-title":"Antibody response to COVID-19 vaccination in adults with hematologic malignant disease","volume":"7","author":"Ollila","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cei\/uxab015","article-title":"Seroconversion following COVID-19 vaccination: Can we optimize protective response in CD20-treated individuals","volume":"207","author":"Baker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Exp Immunol"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-031210-101400","article-title":"Follicular helper CD4 T cells (TFH)","volume":"29","author":"Crotty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu Rev Immunol"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.12.026","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination elicits a robust and persistent T follicular helper cell response in humans","volume":"185","author":"Mudd","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s43018-021-00275-9","article-title":"Functional antibody and T-cell immunity following SARS-CoV-2 infection, including by variants of concern, in patients with cancer: the CAPTURE study","volume":"2","author":"Fendler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Cancer"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.017","article-title":"Robust T cell immunity in convalescent individuals with asymptomatic or mild COVID-19","volume":"183","author":"Sekine","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abf3698","article-title":"Discordant neutralizing antibody and T cell responses in asymptomatic and mild SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"5","author":"Reynolds","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Immunol"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2019.04.017","article-title":"B cell depletion with ublituximab reshapes the T cell profile in multiple sclerosis patients","volume":"332","author":"Lovett-Racke","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"577676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577676","article-title":"B cell depletion changes the immune cell profile in multiple sclerosis patients: One-year report","volume":"359","author":"Lovett-Racke","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585211057511","article-title":"Keep your eyes on the prize: Tackling breakthrough COVID-19 in MS patients","volume":"27","author":"van Kempen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult Scler"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abo1303","article-title":"Understanding T cell responses to COVID-19 is essential for informing public health strategies","volume":"7","author":"Vardhana","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Immunol"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/immunohorizons.2100049","article-title":"Standard peripheral blood mononuclear cell cryopreservation selectively decreases detection of nine clinically relevant T cell markers","volume":"5","author":"Capelle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunohorizons"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2017.02.038","article-title":"Cryopreservation-related loss of antigen-specific IFNgamma producing CD4(+) T-cells can skew immunogenicity data in vaccine trials: Lessons from a malaria vaccine trial substudy","volume":"35","author":"Ford","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00259-09","article-title":"Cryopreservation decreases receptor PD-1 and ligand PD-L1 coinhibitory expression on peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived T cells and monocytes","volume":"16","author":"Campbell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin Vaccine Immunol"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(21)00251-4","article-title":"Humoral and cellular responses to mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 in patients with a history of CD20 b-cell-depleting therapy (RituxiVac): an investigator-initiated, single-centre, open-label study","volume":"3","author":"Moor","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Rheumatol"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2100096","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.6.2100096","article-title":"Impact of age, ethnicity, sex and prior infection status on immunogenicity following a single dose of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine: real-world evidence from healthcare workers, Israel, December 2020 to January 2021","volume":"26","author":"Abu Jabal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abi6950","article-title":"Distinct antibody and memory b cell responses in SARS-CoV-2 naive and recovered individuals following mRNA vaccination","volume":"6","author":"Goel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Immunol"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03739-1","article-title":"Age-related immune response heterogeneity to SARS-CoV-2 vaccine BNT162b2","volume":"596","author":"Collier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.926318\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]],"date-time":"2022-08-05T06:44:00Z","timestamp":1659681840000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.926318\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]]},"references-count":75,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2022.926318"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2022.926318","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]]},"article-number":"926318"}}