{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T18:43:15Z","timestamp":1790016195014,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]],"date-time":"2022-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668729600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>In cystic fibrosis (CF), acute respiratory exacerbations critically enhance pulmonary destruction. Since these mainly occur outside regular appointments, they remain unexplored. We previously elaborated a protocol for home-based upper airway (UAW) sampling obtaining nasal-lavage fluid (NLF), which, in contrast to sputum, does not require immediate processing. The aim of this study was to compare UAW inflammation and pathogen colonization during stable phases and exacerbations in CF patients and healthy controls.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Initially, we obtained NLF by rinsing 10 ml of isotonic saline\/nostril during stable phases. During exacerbations, subjects regularly collected NLF at home. CF patients directly submitted one aliquot for microbiological cultures. The remaining samples were immediately frozen until transfer on ice to our clinic, where PCR analyses were performed and interleukin (IL)-1\u03b2\/IL-6\/IL-8, neutrophil elastase (NE), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 were assessed.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Altogether, 49 CF patients and 38 healthy controls (HCs) completed the study, and 214 NLF samples were analyzed. Of the 49 CF patients, 20 were at least intermittently colonized with <jats:italic>P. aeruginosa<\/jats:italic> and received azithromycin and\/or inhaled antibiotics as standard therapy. At baseline, IL-6 and IL-8 tended to be elevated in CF compared to controls. During infection, inflammatory mediators increased in both cohorts, reaching significance only for IL-6 in controls (p=0.047). Inflammatory responses tended to be higher in controls [1.6-fold (NE) to 4.4-fold (MMP-9)], while in CF, mediators increased only moderately [1.2-1.5-fold (IL-6\/IL-8\/NE\/TIMP-1\/MMP-9)]. Patients receiving inhalative antibiotics or azithromycin (n=20 and n=15, respectively) revealed lower levels of IL-1\u03b2\/IL-6\/IL-8 and NE during exacerbation compared to CF patients not receiving those antibiotics. In addition, CF patients receiving azithromycin showed MMP-9 levels significantly lower than CF patients not receiving azithromycin at stable phase and exacerbation. Altogether, rhinoviruses were the most frequently detected virus, detected at least once in n=24 (49.0%) of the 49 included pwCF and in n=26 (68.4%) of the 38 healthy controls over the 13-month duration of the study. Remarkably, during exacerbation, rhinovirus detection rates were significantly higher in the HC group compared to those in CF patients (65.8% vs. 22.4%; p&amp;lt;0.0001).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Non-invasive and partially home-based UAW sampling opens new windows for the assessment of inflammation and pathogen colonization in the unified airway system.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.947359","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]],"date-time":"2022-11-18T07:19:03Z","timestamp":1668755943000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Divergent dynamics of inflammatory mediators and multiplex PCRs during airway infection in cystic fibrosis patients and healthy controls: Serial upper airway sampling by nasal 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