{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T11:10:00Z","timestamp":1791544200899,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]],"date-time":"2023-01-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>The current monkeypox (MPX) outbreak, caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), has turned into a global concern, with over 59,000 infection cases and 23 deaths worldwide.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>Herein, we aimed to exploit robust immunoinformatics approach, targeting membrane-bound, enveloped, and extracellular proteins of MPXV to formulate a chimeric antigen. Such a strategy could similarly be applied for identifying immunodominant epitopes and designing multi-epitope vaccine ensembles in other pathogens responsible for chronic pathologies that are difficult to intervene against.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A reverse vaccinology pipeline was used to select 11 potential vaccine candidates, which were screened and mapped to predict immunodominant B-cell and T-cell epitopes. The finalized epitopes were merged with the aid of suitable linkers, an adjuvant (Resuscitation-promoting factor), a PADRE sequence (13 aa), and an HIV TAT sequence (11 aa) to formulate a multivalent epitope vaccine. Bioinformatics tools were employed to carry out codon adaptation and computational cloning. The tertiary structure of the chimeric vaccine construct was modeled via I-TASSER, and its interaction with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was evaluated using molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation. C-ImmSim server was implemented to examine the immune response against the designed multi-epitope antigen.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results and discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>The designed chimeric vaccine construct included 21 immunodominant epitopes (six B-cell, eight cytotoxic T lymphocyte, and seven helper T-lymphocyte) and is predicted non-allergen, antigenic, soluble, with suitable physicochemical features, that can promote cross-protection among the MPXV strains. The selected epitopes indicated a wide global population coverage (93.62%). Most finalized epitopes have 70%\u2013100% sequence similarity with the experimentally validated immune epitopes of the vaccinia virus, which can be helpful in the speedy progression of vaccine design. Lastly, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation computed stable and energetically favourable interaction between the putative antigen and TLR4.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our results show that the multi-epitope vaccine might elicit cellular and humoral immune responses and could be a potential vaccine candidate against the MPXV infection. Further experimental testing of the proposed vaccine is warranted to validate its safety and efficacy profile.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1091941","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]],"date-time":"2023-01-26T05:27:10Z","timestamp":1674710830000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Immunoinformatics design of multivalent epitope vaccine against monkeypox virus and its variants using membrane-bound, enveloped, and extracellular proteins as targets"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Waqas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shahkaar","family":"Aziz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pietro","family":"Li\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yumna","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amjad","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aqib","family":"Iqbal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Faizullah","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fahad Nasser","family":"Almajhdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","volume-title":"Monkeypox outbreak: Global trends","year":"2022"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2011.12.001","article-title":"Outbreaks of human monkeypox after cessation of smallpox vaccination","volume":"20","author":"Reynolds","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007791","article-title":"A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy","volume":"13","author":"Beer","year":"2019","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010141","article-title":"The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-a potential threat? 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