{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T20:45:21Z","timestamp":1789073121287,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]],"date-time":"2023-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>On 23rd July 2022, the World Health Organization (WHO) recognized the ongoing monkeypox outbreak as a public medical crisis. Monkeypox virus (MPV), the etiological agent of monkeypox, is a zoonotic, linear, double-stranded DNA virus. In 1970, the Democratic Republic of the Congo reported the first case of MPV infection. Human-to-human transmission can happen through sexual contact, inhaled droplets, or skin-to-skin contact. Once inoculated, the viruses multiply rapidly and spread into the bloodstream to cause viremia, which then affect multiple organs, including the skin, gastrointestinal tract, genitals, lungs, and liver. By September 9, 2022, more than 57,000 cases had been reported in 103 locations, especially in Europe and the United States. Infected patients are characterized by physical symptoms such as red rash, fatigue, backache, muscle aches, headache, and fever. A variety of medical strategies are available for orthopoxviruses, including monkeypox. Monkeypox prevention following the smallpox vaccine has shown up to 85% efficacy, and several antiviral drugs, such as Cidofovir and Brincidofovir, may slow the viral spread. In this article, we review the origin, pathophysiology, global epidemiology, clinical manifestation, and possible treatments of MPV to prevent the propagation of the virus and provide cues to generate specific drugs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1132250","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]],"date-time":"2023-03-21T00:30:12Z","timestamp":1679358612000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Insights into monkeypox pathophysiology, global prevalence, clinical manifestation and treatments"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Liyan","family":"Niu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dingfa","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qin","family":"Ling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ziwen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deju","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Panpan","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zicheng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jitao","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ao","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianyong","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2022.07.004","article-title":"Monkeypox: An emerging global threat during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"55","author":"Lai","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Microbiol Immunol Infect"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2206.150579","article-title":"Extended human-to-Human transmission during a monkeypox outbreak in the democratic republic of the Congo","volume":"22","author":"Nolen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004130","article-title":"Further assessment of monkeypox virus infection in Gambian pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus) using In vivo bioluminescent imaging","volume":"9","author":"Falendysz","year":"2015","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B4","first-page":"599","article-title":"Isolation and properties of the causal agent of a new variola-like disease (monkeypox) in man","volume":"46","author":"Marennikova","year":"1972","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"B5","unstructured":"2022 monkeypox outbreak global map"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jpc.16171","article-title":"Monkeypox: A clinical update for paediatricians","volume":"58","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Paediatr Child Health"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-022-01742-y","article-title":"Prevention and treatment of monkeypox","volume":"82","author":"Rizk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/br.37.1.1-18.1973","article-title":"Monkeypox virus","volume":"37","author":"Cho","year":"1973","journal-title":"Bacteriol Rev"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imj.2022.07.001","article-title":"Preparedness for a monkeypox outbreak","volume":"1","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Med"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/276291a0","article-title":"Whitepox virus isolated from hamsters inoculated with monkeypox virus","volume":"276","author":"Marennikova","year":"1978","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000149055","article-title":"Monkeypox virus as a source of whitepox viruses","volume":"11","author":"Marennikova","year":"1979","journal-title":"Intervirology"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v7042168","article-title":"A phylogeographic investigation of African monkeypox","volume":"7","author":"Nakazawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.12.130","article-title":"A review of experimental and natural infections of animals with monkeypox virus between 1958 and 2012","volume":"8","author":"Parker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Future Virol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/jgid.jgid_104_22","article-title":"Why should RNA viruses have all the fun - monkeypox, a close relative of smallpox and a DNA virus","volume":"14","author":"Thakur","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Glob Infect Dis"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"taz002","DOI":"10.1093\/jtm\/taz002","article-title":"Monkeypox transmission among international travellers-serious monkey business","volume":"26","author":"Angelo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Travel Med"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.19.242347","article-title":"Modelling human-to-human transmission of monkeypox","volume":"98","author":"Grant","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2022.198932","article-title":"The virology of human monkeypox virus (hMPXV): A brief overview","volume":"322","author":"Lansiaux","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virus Res"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2022.102855","article-title":"The 2022 outbreak and the pathobiology of the monkeypox virus","volume":"102855","author":"Kumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Autoimmun"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"o1274","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.o1274","article-title":"Monkeypox: What do we know about the outbreaks in Europe and north America","volume":"377","author":"Mahase","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2200471","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.27.2200471","article-title":"Monkeypox outbreak predominantly affecting men who have sex with men, Madrid, Spain, 26 April to 16 June 2022","volume":"27","author":"Inigo Martinez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2022.106768","article-title":"Monkeypox virus under COVID-19: Caution for sexual transmission - correspondence","volume":"104","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Surg"},{"key":"B22","article-title":"Origin and evolution of poxviruses","volume-title":"Origin and Evolution of Viruses","year":"2008"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13785","article-title":"Monkeypox 2022 outbreak: An update","volume":"27","author":"Velavan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0066071","article-title":"Pathogen-host associations and predicted range shifts of human monkeypox in response to climate change in central Africa","volume":"8","author":"Thomassen","year":"2013","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006592","article-title":"Comparison of monkeypox viruses pathogenesis in mice by in vivo imaging","volume":"4","author":"Osorio","year":"2009","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.3780373","article-title":"The pathology of experimental aerosolized monkeypox virus infection in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis)","volume":"81","author":"Zaucha","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lab Invest"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2002.130118","article-title":"Genomic variability of monkeypox virus among humans, democratic republic of the Congo","volume":"20","author":"Kugelman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(85)90111-4","article-title":"Orthopoxvirus DNA: a comparison of restriction profiles and maps","volume":"143","author":"Esposito","year":"1985","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s002390010171","article-title":"Poxviruses and the origin of the eukaryotic nucleus","volume":"52","author":"Takemura","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Mol Evol"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/VAAT.S8563","article-title":"Poxviruses: Smallpox vaccine, its complications and chemotherapy","volume":"2","author":"Remichkova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Virus Adaptat. Treat"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-5350-8_21","article-title":"The molecular biology of poxviruses","volume":"136","author":"Moss","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mol Bas. Viral Replicat"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v12111257","article-title":"Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: Infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution","volume":"12","author":"Alakunle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2011.11.007","article-title":"Poxvirus host cell entry","volume":"2","author":"Schmidt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Opin Virol"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.68.1.130-147.1994","article-title":"Assembly of vaccinia virus: The second wrapping cisterna is derived from the trans golgi network","volume":"68","author":"Schmelz","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.micro.57.030502.091037","article-title":"Vaccinia virus motility","volume":"57","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0800589105","article-title":"Monkeypox virus evades antiviral CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses by suppressing cognate T cell activation","volume":"105","author":"Hammarlund","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.76.757","article-title":"Monkeypox zoonotic associations: Insights from laboratory evaluation of animals associated with the multi-state us outbreak","volume":"76","author":"Hutson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hygiene"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.8.2919-2921.2002","article-title":"Outbreaks of disease suspected of being due to human monkeypox virus infection in the democratic republic of Congo in 2001","volume":"40","author":"Meyer","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010141","article-title":"The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-a potential threat? A systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Bunge","year":"2022","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/498115","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of human monkeypox, and risk factors for severe disease","volume":"41","author":"Huhn","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"B41","unstructured":"2022 monkeypox outbreak global map."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v2091933","article-title":"Orthopoxvirus genome evolution: the role of gene loss","volume":"2","author":"Hendrickson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-020-09944-5","article-title":"The natural history, pathobiology, and clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infections","volume":"15","author":"Machhi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neuroimmune Pharmacol"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2007800","article-title":"Visualizing speech-generated oral fluid droplets with laser light scattering","volume":"382","author":"Anfinrud","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1003.030878","article-title":"Monkeypox transmission and pathogenesis in prairie dogs","volume":"10","author":"Guarner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108427","article-title":"COVID-19 pathophysiology: A review","volume":"215","author":"Yuki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010078","article-title":"The remarkable evolutionary plasticity of coronaviruses by mutation and recombination: Insights for the COVID-19 pandemic and the future evolutionary paths of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"14","author":"Amoutzias","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2000062","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.5.2000062","article-title":"Incubation period of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections among travellers from wuhan, China, 20-28 January 2020","volume":"25","author":"Backer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00160.2020","article-title":"Is the kidney a target of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"318","author":"Martinez-Rojas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Renal Physiol"},{"key":"B50","unstructured":"Weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 - 1 February 20232023"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2020.1819791","article-title":"An overview of tecovirimat for smallpox treatment and expanded anti-orthopoxvirus applications","volume":"19","author":"Russo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v2122740","article-title":"Development of CMX001 for the treatment of poxvirus infections","volume":"2","author":"Lanier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/095632020801900302","article-title":"Progress in the discovery of compounds inhibiting orthopoxviruses in animal models","volume":"19","author":"Smee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir Chem Chemother"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v9120380","article-title":"Improving the care and treatment of monkeypox patients in low-resource settings: Applying evidence from contemporary biomedical and smallpox biodefense research","volume":"9","author":"Reynolds","year":"2017","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.02404-21","article-title":"New perspectives on antimicrobial agents: Molnupiravir and Nirmatrelvir\/Ritonavir for treatment of COVID-19","volume":"66","author":"Atmar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10081342","article-title":"Vaccination for monkeypox virus infection in humans: A review of key considerations","volume":"10","author":"See","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B57","unstructured":"Control ECfDPa. epidemiological update: Monkeypox outbreak"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2207323","article-title":"Monkeypox virus infection in humans across 16 countries - April-June 2022","volume":"387","author":"Thornhill","year":"2022","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7132e3","article-title":"Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of monkeypox cases - united states, may 17-July 22, 2022","volume":"71","author":"Philpott","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"B60","unstructured":"2022 monkeypox outbreak global map"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000030406","article-title":"Human monkeypox virus: An updated review","volume":"101","author":"Adnan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med (Baltimore)"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/156.2.293","article-title":"Human monkeypox: clinical features of 282 patients","volume":"156","author":"Jezek","year":"1987","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7866","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23147866","article-title":"Monkeypox: A new threat","volume":"23","author":"Kmiec","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/idr14050077","article-title":"Monkeypox diagnosis by cutaneous and mucosal findings","volume":"14","author":"de Sousa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Dis Rep"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00513-8","article-title":"Monkeypox virus isolation from a semen sample collected in the early phase of infection in a patient with prolonged seminal viral shedding","volume":"22","author":"Lapa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2022.102414","article-title":"Monkeypox virus neurological manifestations in comparison to other orthopoxviruses","volume":"49","author":"Shafaati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Travel Med Infect Dis"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00228-6","article-title":"Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: A retrospective observational study in the UK","volume":"22","author":"Adler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-022-02195-z","article-title":"Ophthalmic manifestations of monkeypox virus","volume":"37","author":"Abdelaal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2019.03.001","article-title":"Human monkeypox: Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention","volume":"33","author":"Petersen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect Dis Clin North Am"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-022-04348-0","article-title":"Monkeypox: A review","volume":"89","author":"Singhal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J Pediatr"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26473","article-title":"An overview of monkeypox virus and its neuroinvasive potential","volume":"92","author":"Pastula","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B72","article-title":"Purpura variolosa; its manifestations in skin and blood","volume":"24","author":"Haviland","year":"1952","journal-title":"Yale J Biol Med"},{"key":"B73","article-title":"Haemorrhagic smallpox. 2. specific bleeding and coagulation studies","volume":"33","author":"McKenzie","year":"1965","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiq162","article-title":"Smallpox vaccine safety is dependent on T cells and not b cells","volume":"203","author":"Gordon","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005857","article-title":"Enhancing case definitions for surveillance of human monkeypox in the democratic republic of Congo","volume":"11","author":"Osadebe","year":"2017","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-115-6-457","article-title":"The pathogenesis of sepsis","volume":"115","author":"Bone","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/425039","article-title":"Human monkeypox infection: A family cluster in the midwestern united states","volume":"190","author":"Sejvar","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000101821.61387.a5","article-title":"A case of severe monkeypox virus disease in an American child: Emerging infections and changing professional values","volume":"22","author":"Anderson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2022.08.012","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of ambulatory and hospitalised patients with monkeypox virus infection: An observational cohort study","volume":"29","author":"Mailhe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/595552","article-title":"Transmission of atypical varicella-zoster virus infections involving palm and sole manifestations in an area with monkeypox endemicity","volume":"48","author":"Macneil","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/M22-1581","article-title":"A novel international monkeypox outbreak","volume":"175","author":"Adalja","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann Internal Med"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2200497","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.32.2200497","article-title":"Monkeypox: Another test for PCR","volume":"27","author":"Huggett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31080\/ASMI.2022.05.1045","article-title":"Human monkeypox: An emerging and re-emerging infectious viral disease","volume":"5","author":"Pal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Sci Microbiol"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01063-7","article-title":"Guidelines for pregnant individuals with monkeypox virus exposure","volume":"400","author":"Dashraath","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7132e4","article-title":"Interim guidance for prevention and treatment of monkeypox in persons with HIV infection - United States, August 2022","volume":"71","author":"O\u2019Shea J","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2022.08.017","article-title":"Monkeypox in pregnancy: Virology, clinical presentation, and obstetric management","volume":"227","author":"Dashraath","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac622","article-title":"Antivirals with activity against monkeypox: A clinically oriented review","volume":"76","author":"Siegrist","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.08.02.502485","article-title":"Potential anti-monkeypox virus activity of atovaquone, mefloquine, and molnupiravir, and their potential use as treatments","author":"Akazawa","year":"2022","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"ofac377","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac377","article-title":"Tecovirimat for the treatment of human monkeypox: An initial series from Massachusetts, united states","volume":"9","author":"Matias","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.01.009","article-title":"Short-term clinical safety profile of brincidofovir: A favorable benefit-risk proposition in the treatment of smallpox","volume":"143","author":"Chittick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v2122803","article-title":"Cidofovir activity against poxvirus infections","volume":"2","author":"Andrei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.798","article-title":"Repositioning potentials of smallpox vaccines and antiviral agents in monkeypox outbreak: A rapid review on comparative benefits and risks","volume":"5","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Sci Rep"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2021.105182","article-title":"Benefit-risk assessment for brincidofovir for the treatment of smallpox: U.S. food and drug administration's evaluation","volume":"195","author":"Chan-Tack","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix260","article-title":"Maternal and fetal outcomes among pregnant women with human monkeypox infection in the democratic republic of Congo","volume":"216","author":"Mbala","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(22)00284-4","article-title":"Monkeypox vaccines in pregnancy: Lessons must be learned from COVID-19","volume":"10","author":"Khalil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"B96","first-page":"July","article-title":"Monkey pox: A ambient review of transmission, improving care and treatments","volume":"4","author":"Gountia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int Res J Modern. Eng Technol Sci"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7114a1","article-title":"Monkeypox in a traveler returning from Nigeria - Dallas, Texas, July 2021","volume":"71","author":"Rao","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1811044","article-title":"Oral tecovirimat for the treatment of smallpox","volume":"379","author":"Laudisoit","year":"2018","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00879-06","article-title":"Efficacy of delayed treatment with ST-246 given orally against systemic orthopoxvirus infections in mice","volume":"51","author":"Quenelle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother"},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2005.12.001","article-title":"Vaccinia immune globulin: Current policies, preparedness, and product safety and efficacy","volume":"10","author":"Wittek","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/498155","article-title":"Reemergence of monkeypox: prevalence, diagnostics, and countermeasures","volume":"41","author":"Nalca","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3390\/v3010047","article-title":"Efficacy of CMX001 as a post exposure antiviral in new Zealand white rabbits infected with rabbitpox virus, a model for orthopoxvirus infections of humans","volume":"3","author":"Rice","year":"2011","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.2217\/17460794.3.6.595","article-title":"Therapeutic and prophylactic drugs to treat orthopoxvirus infections","volume":"3","author":"Parker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Future Virol"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00196-1","article-title":"Potential antiviral therapeutics for smallpox, monkeypox and other orthopoxvirus infections","volume":"57","author":"Baker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2018.00241","article-title":"Emergence of monkeypox as the most important orthopoxvirus infection in humans","volume":"6","author":"Sklenovska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Public Health"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1132250\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]],"date-time":"2023-03-21T00:30:19Z","timestamp":1679358619000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1132250\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]]},"references-count":105,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1132250"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1132250","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]]},"article-number":"1132250"}}