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Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) receptor, is known to exert inflammation in various cases of microbial infection, cancer and autoimmune disorders. However, any such involvement of TLR4 in Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection is yet to be explored. Accordingly, the role of TLR4 was investigated towards CHIKV infection and modulation of host immune responses in the current study using mice macrophage cell line RAW264.7, primary macrophage cells of different origins and <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> mice model. The findings suggest that TLR4 inhibition using TAK-242 (a specific pharmacological inhibitor) reduces viral copy number as well as reduces the CHIKV-E2 protein level significantly using p38 and JNK-MAPK pathways. Moreover, this led to reduced expression of macrophage activation markers like CD14, CD86, MHC-II and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-6, MCP-1) significantly in both the mouse primary macrophages and RAW264.7 cell line, <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>. Additionally, TAK-242-directed TLR4 inhibition demonstrated a significant reduction of percent E2-positive cells, viral titre and TNF expression in hPBMC-derived macrophages, <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>. These observations were further validated in TLR4-knockout (KO) RAW cells. Furthermore, the interaction between CHIKV-E2 and TLR4 was demonstrated by immuno-precipitation studies, <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> and supported by molecular docking analysis, <jats:italic>in silico.<\/jats:italic> TLR4-dependent viral entry was further validated by an anti-TLR4 antibody-mediated blocking experiment. It was noticed that TLR4 is necessary for the early events of viral infection, especially during the attachment and entry stages. Interestingly, it was also observed that TLR4 is not involved in the post-entry stages of CHIKV infection in host macrophages. The administration of TAK-242 decreased CHIKV infection significantly by reducing disease manifestations, improving survivability (around 75%) and reducing inflammation in mice model. Collectively, for the first time, this study reports TLR4 as one of the novel receptors to facilitate the attachment and entry of CHIKV in host macrophages, the TLR4-CHIKV-E2 interactions are essential for efficient viral entry and modulation of infection-induced pro-inflammatory responses in host macrophages, which might have translational implication for designing future therapeutics to regulate the CHIKV infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1139808","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,20]],"date-time":"2023-04-20T22:01:58Z","timestamp":1682028118000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["TLR4 is one of the receptors for Chikungunya virus envelope protein E2 and regulates virus induced pro-inflammatory responses in host 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