{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T17:15:08Z","timestamp":1793639708100,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,5]],"date-time":"2023-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685923200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000069","name":"National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000069","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000069","name":"National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000069","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008368","name":"Gigtforeningen","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008368","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005111","name":"Rigshospitalet","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005111","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Pregnancy is known to induce extensive biological changes in the healthy mother. Little is known, however, about what these changes are at the molecular level. We have examined systemic expression changes in protein-coding genes and long non-coding (lnc) RNAs during and after pregnancy, compared to before pregnancy, among healthy women with term pregnancies.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Blood samples were collected from 14 healthy women enrolled in our prospective pregnancy cohort at 7 time-points (before, during and after pregnancy). Total RNA from frozen whole blood was used for RNA sequencing. Following raw read alignment and assembly, gene-level counts were obtained for protein-coding genes and long non-coding RNAs. At each time-point, cell type proportions were estimated using deconvolution. To examine associations between pregnancy status and gene expression over time, Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) models were fitted, adjusting for age at conception, and with and without adjusting for changes in cell type proportions. Fold-changes in expression at each trimester were examined relative to the pre-pregnancy baseline.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Numerous immune-related genes demonstrated pregnancy-associated expression, in a time-dependent manner. The genes that demonstrated the largest changes in expression included several that were neutrophil-related (over-expressed) and numerous immunoglobulin genes (under-expressed). Estimated cell proportions revealed a marked increase in neutrophils, and less so of activated CD4 memory T cells, during pregnancy, while most other cell type proportions decreased or remained unchanged. Adjusting for cell type proportions in our model revealed that although most of the expression changes were due to changes in cell type proportions in the bloodstream, transcriptional regulation was also involved, especially in down-regulating expression of type I interferon inducible genes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Compared to a pre-pregnancy baseline, there were extensive systemic changes in cell type proportions, gene expression and biological pathways associated with different stages of pregnancy and postpartum among healthy women. Some were due to changes in cell type proportions and some due to gene regulation. In addition to providing insight into term pregnancy among healthy women, these findings also provide a \u201cnormal\u201d reference for abnormal pregnancies and for autoimmune diseases that improve or worsen during pregnancy, to assess deviations from normal.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1161084","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,5]],"date-time":"2023-06-05T05:06:35Z","timestamp":1685941595000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Pregnancy-associated systemic gene expression compared to a pre-pregnancy baseline, among healthy women with term pregnancies"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Matthew L.","family":"Wright","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dana E.","family":"Goin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mette Kiel","family":"Smed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas P.","family":"Jewell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. 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