{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T00:21:59Z","timestamp":1793146919562,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,29]],"date-time":"2023-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687996800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pathogenic eukaryotes including fungi release extracellular vesicles (EVs) which are composed of a variety of bioactive components, including peptides, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and membrane lipids. EVs contain virulence-associated molecules suggesting a crucial role of these structures in disease pathogenesis. EVs derived from the pathogenic yeast phase of <jats:italic>Talaromyces (Penicillium) marneffei<\/jats:italic>, a causative agent of systemic opportunistic mycoses \u201ctalaromycosis,\u201d were studied for their immunogenic components and immunomodulatory properties. Some important virulence factors in EVs including fungal melanin and yeast phase specific mannoprotein were determined by immunoblotting. Furthermore, fluorescence microscopy revealed that <jats:italic>T. marneffei<\/jats:italic> EVs were internalized by THP-1 human macrophages. Co-incubation of <jats:italic>T. marneffei<\/jats:italic> EVs with THP-1 human macrophages resulted in increased levels of supernatant interleukin (IL)-1\u03b2, IL-6 and IL-10. The expression of THP-1 macrophage surface CD86 was significantly increased after exposed to <jats:italic>T. marneffei<\/jats:italic> EVs. These findings support the hypothesis that fungal EVs play an important role in macrophage \u201cclassical\u201d M1 polarization. <jats:italic>T. marneffei<\/jats:italic> EVs preparations also increased phagocytosis, suggesting that EV components stimulate THP-1 macrophages to produce effective antimicrobial compounds. In addition, <jats:italic>T. marneffei<\/jats:italic> EVs stimulated THP-1 macrophages were more effective at killing <jats:italic>T. marneffei<\/jats:italic> conidia. These results indicate that <jats:italic>T. marneffei<\/jats:italic> EVs can potently modulate macrophage functions, resulting in the activation of these innate immune cells to enhance their antimicrobial activity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1192326","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,29]],"date-time":"2023-06-29T11:53:35Z","timestamp":1688039615000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Extracellular vesicles derived from Talaromyces marneffei contain immunogenic compounds and modulate THP-1 macrophage 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