{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T22:28:16Z","timestamp":1771540096661,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]],"date-time":"2023-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696982400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Q fever, caused by the intracellular bacterium <jats:italic>Coxiella burnetii<\/jats:italic>, is considered an occupational and biodefense hazard and can result in debilitating long-term complications. While natural infection and vaccination induce humoral and cellular immune responses, the exact nature of cellular immune responses to <jats:italic>C. burnetii<\/jats:italic> is incompletely understood. The current study seeks to investigate more deeply the nature of long-term cellular recall responses in naturally exposed individuals by both cytokine release assessment and cytometry profiling.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Individuals exposed during the 2007-2010 Dutch Q fever outbreak were grouped in 2015, based on a <jats:italic>C. burnetii<\/jats:italic>-specific IFN\u03b3 release assay (IGRA), serological status, and self-reported clinical symptoms during initial infection, into asymptomatic IGRA-negative\/seronegative controls, and three IGRA-positive groups (seronegative\/asymptomatic; seropositive\/asymptomatic and seropositive\/symptomatic). Recall responses following <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> re-stimulation with heat-inactivated <jats:italic>C. burnetii<\/jats:italic> in whole blood, were assessed in 2016\/2017 by cytokine release assays (n=55) and flow cytometry (n=36), and in blood mononuclear cells by mass cytometry (n=36).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Cytokine release analysis showed significantly elevated IL-2 responses in all seropositive individuals and elevated IL-1\u03b2 responses in those recovered from symptomatic infection. Comparative flow cytometry analysis revealed significantly increased IFN\u03b3, TNF\u03b1 and IL-2 recall responses by CD4 T cells and higher IL-6 production by monocytes from symptomatic, IGRA-positive\/seropositive individuals compared to controls. Mass cytometry profiling and unsupervised clustering analysis confirmed recall responses in seropositive individuals by two activated CD4 T cell subsets, one characterized by a strong Th1 cytokine profile (IFN\u03b3<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>IL-2<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>TNF\u03b1<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>), and identified <jats:italic>C. burnetii<\/jats:italic>-specific activation of CD8 T cells in all IGRA-positive groups. Remarkably, increased <jats:italic>C. burnetii<\/jats:italic>-specific responses in IGRA-positive individuals were also observed in three innate cell subpopulations: one characterized by an IFN\u03b3<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>IL-2<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>TNF\u03b1<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> Th1 cytokine profile and lack of canonical marker expression, and two IL-1\u03b2-, IL-6- and IL-8-producing CD14<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> monocyte subsets that could be the drivers of elevated secretion of innate cytokines in pre-exposed individuals.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These data highlight that there are long-term increased responses to <jats:italic>C. burnetii<\/jats:italic> in both adaptive and innate cellular compartments, the latter being indicative of trained immunity. These findings warrant future studies into the protective role of these innate responses and may inform future Q fever vaccine design.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1249581","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]],"date-time":"2023-10-11T07:14:10Z","timestamp":1697008450000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Cytometry profiling of ex vivo recall responses to Coxiella burnetii in previously naturally exposed individuals reveals long-term changes in both adaptive and innate immune cellular compartments"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Susan","family":"Raju Paul","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anja","family":"Scholzen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Patrick 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