{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T06:25:47Z","timestamp":1777098347187,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,29]],"date-time":"2024-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1706486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["390873048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["390873048"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Prophylactic vaccines generate strong and durable immunity to avoid future infections, whereas post-exposure vaccinations are intended to establish rapid protection against already ongoing infections. Antiviral cytotoxic CD8<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> T cells (CTL) are activated by dendritic cells (DCs), which themselves must be activated by adjuvants to express costimulatory molecules and so-called signal 0-chemokines that attract naive CTL to the DCs.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Hypothesis<\/jats:title><jats:p>Here we asked whether a vaccination protocol that combines two adjuvants, a toll-like receptor ligand (TLR) and a natural killer T cell activator, to induce two signal 0 chemokines, synergistically accelerates CTL activation.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We used a well-characterized vaccination model based on the model antigen ovalbumin, the TLR9 ligand CpG and the NKT cell ligand <jats:italic>\u03b1<\/jats:italic>-galactosylceramide to induce signal 0-chemokines. Exploiting this vaccination model, we studied detailed T cell kinetics and T cell profiling in different <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> mouse models of viral infection.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>We found that CTL induced by both adjuvants obtained a head-start that allowed them to functionally differentiate further and generate higher numbers of protective CTL 1-2 days earlier. Such signal 0-optimized post-exposure vaccination hastened clearance of experimental adenovirus and cytomegalovirus infections.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our findings show that signal 0 chemokine-inducing adjuvant combinations gain time in the race against rapidly replicating microbes, which may be especially useful in post-exposure vaccination settings during viral epi\/pandemics.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1338499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,29]],"date-time":"2024-01-29T12:15:48Z","timestamp":1706530548000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Rapid protection against viral infections by chemokine-accelerated post-exposure vaccination"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Annkristin","family":"Heine","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Niels A. 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