{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T04:14:38Z","timestamp":1790223278219,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":190,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]],"date-time":"2024-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Importance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Research is beginning to elucidate the sophisticated mechanisms underlying the microbiota-gut-brain-immune interface, moving from primarily animal models to human studies. Findings support the dynamic relationships between the gut microbiota as an ecosystem (microbiome) within an ecosystem (host) and its intersection with the host immune and nervous systems. Adding this to the effects on epigenetic regulation of gene expression further complicates and strengthens the response. At the heart is inflammation, which manifests in a variety of pathologies including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer\u2019s disease, Parkinson\u2019s disease, and Multiple Sclerosis (MS).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Observations<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Generally, the research to date is limited and has focused on bacteria, likely due to the simplicity and cost-effectiveness of 16s rRNA sequencing, despite its lower resolution and inability to determine functional ability\/alterations. However, this omits all other microbiota including fungi, viruses, and phages, which are emerging as key members of the human microbiome. Much of the research has been done in pre-clinical models and\/or in small human studies in more developed parts of the world. The relationships observed are promising but cannot be considered reliable or generalizable at this time. Specifically, causal relationships cannot be determined currently. More research has been done in Alzheimer\u2019s disease, followed by Parkinson\u2019s disease, and then little in MS. The data for MS is encouraging despite this.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions and relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>While the research is still nascent, the microbiota-gut-brain-immune interface may be a missing link, which has hampered our progress on understanding, let alone preventing, managing, or putting into remission neurodegenerative diseases. Relationships must first be established in humans, as animal models have been shown to poorly translate to complex human physiology and environments, especially when investigating the human gut microbiome and its relationships where animal models are often overly simplistic. Only then can robust research be conducted in humans and using mechanistic model systems.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1365673","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]],"date-time":"2024-05-16T00:26:41Z","timestamp":1715819201000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":63,"title":["The microbiota-gut-brain-immune interface in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammatory diseases: a narrative review of the emerging 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