{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T03:26:53Z","timestamp":1790652413163,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,2]],"date-time":"2024-05-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714608000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>The assessment of long-term humoral and cellular immunity post-vaccination is crucial for establishing an optimal vaccination strategy.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>This prospective cohort study evaluated adults (\u226518 years) who received a BA.4\/5 bivalent vaccine. We measured the anti-receptor binding domain immunoglobulin G antibody and neutralizing antibodies (NAb) against wild-type and Omicron subvariants (BA.5, BQ.1.1, BN.1, XBB.1 and EG.5) up to 9 months post-vaccination. T-cell immune responses were measured before and 4 weeks after vaccination.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>A total of 108 (28 SARS-CoV-2-na\u00efve and 80 previously infected) participants were enrolled. Anti-receptor binding domain immunoglobulin G (U\/mL) levels were higher at 9 months post-vaccination than baseline in SAR-CoV-2-na\u00efve individuals (8,339 vs. 1,834, p&amp;lt;0.001). NAb titers against BQ.1.1, BN.1, and XBB.1 were significantly higher at 9 months post-vaccination than baseline in both groups, whereas NAb against EG.5 was negligible at all time points. The T-cell immune response (median spot forming unit\/10<jats:sup>6<\/jats:sup> cells) was highly cross-reactive at both baseline (wild-type\/BA.5\/XBB.1.5, 38.3\/52.5\/45.0 in SARS-CoV-2-na\u00efve individuals; 51.6\/54.9\/54.9 in SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals) and 4 weeks post-vaccination, with insignificant boosting post-vaccination.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Remarkable cross-reactive neutralization was observed against BQ.1.1, BN.1, and XBB.1 up to 9 months after BA.4\/5 bivalent vaccination, but not against EG.5. The T-cell immune response was highly cross-reactive.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1385135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,2]],"date-time":"2024-05-02T04:48:19Z","timestamp":1714625299000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Long-term humoral and cellular immunity against vaccine strains and Omicron subvariants (BQ.1.1, BN.1, XBB.1, and EG.5) after bivalent COVID-19 vaccination"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Hakjun","family":"Hyun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eliel","family":"Nham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hye","family":"Seong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jin 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