{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:39:48Z","timestamp":1791895188042,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,3]],"date-time":"2025-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738540800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005825","name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005825","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Salmonellosis, a gastrointestinal disease, continues to be one of the major public health concerns worldwide. Poultry meat and eggs are recognized as the major source of\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    food poisoning in humans. Our study evaluated the protective efficacy of mannose-conjugated chitosan-nanoparticle (mChitosan-NP)-based subunit vaccine, consisting of immunogenic outer membrane proteins and flagella of\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    Enteritidis [mChitosan (OMP+FLA)\/FLA-NP], coadministered orally with potent mucosal adjuvants to reduce the colonization of\n                    <jats:italic>S.<\/jats:italic>\n                    Enteritidis in the intestines of broiler chickens. We evaluated the adjuvant effects of three different doses of two well-known mucosal adjuvants, c-di-GMP (stimulator of interferon gene agonist) and whole cell lysate (WCL) of\n                    <jats:italic>Mycobacterium smegmatis<\/jats:italic>\n                    , to improve the efficacy of mChitosan (OMP+FLA)\/FLA-NP vaccine. Our data reaffirmed the potent adjuvanticity of both of these adjuvants and identified their optimal dose when entrapped in mChitosan-NP to potentiate the immunogenicity and efficacy of orally delivered mChitosan (OMP+FLA)\/FLA-NP vaccine. The physical characteristics of mChitosan (OMP+FLA)\/FLA-NP, mChitosan-GMP\/FLA-NP, and mChitosan-WCL\/FLA-NP formulations revealed a high positive charge (Zeta potential +20\u201325 mV), size 235\u2013260 nm, and polydispersity index 0.35\u20130.52, which are conducive for oral delivery. The efficacy in chickens that received oral administration with a combination of the vaccine-adjuvant formulations was evaluated by challenging with\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    Enteritidis. Our data showed that mChitosan (OMP+FLA)\/FLA-NP WCL at 10 \u00b5g\/dose formulation consistently reduced the\n                    <jats:italic>S.<\/jats:italic>\n                    Enteritidis load by over 0.5 log\n                    <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                    comparable to a commercial live vaccine at post-challenge days 4 and 10. Immunologically, we observed enhanced systemic and mucosal antibody and cellular (B cells and T-helper cells) immune responses as well as upregulation of expression of immune cytokine genes IFN-\u03b3, TGF-\u03b2, and IL-17 in the cecal tonsils of adjuvanted mChitosan-NP\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    -subunit-vaccinated birds. Overall, particularly the mucosal adjuvant WCL consistently enhanced the efficacy of mChitosan (OMP+FLA)\/FLA-NP vaccine by inducing effective immune responses.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1509990","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,3]],"date-time":"2025-02-03T01:35:09Z","timestamp":1738546509000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Evaluation of mucosal adjuvants to chitosan-nanoparticle-based oral subunit vaccine for controlling salmonellosis in broilers"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Raksha","family":"Suresh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shekoni","family":"Olaitan 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