{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T12:19:38Z","timestamp":1760098778719,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":197,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]],"date-time":"2025-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741824000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The pandemic potential of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) highlights the critical need for effective vaccines due to its high fatality rate of around 36%. In this review, we identified a variety of immunotherapeutic molecules and diagnostic biomarkers that could be used in MERS vaccine development as human-derived adjuvants. We identified immune molecules that have been incorporated into standard clinical diagnostics such as CXCL10\/IP10, CXCL8\/IL-8, CCL5\/RANTES, IL-6, and the complement proteins Ca3 and Ca5. Utilization of different human monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of MERS-CoV patients demonstrates promising outcomes in combatting MERS-CoV infections <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>, such as hMS-1, 4C2H, 3B11-N, NBMS10-FC, HR2P-M2, SAB-301, M336, LCA60, REGN3051, REGN3048, MCA1, MERs-4, MERs-27, MERs-gd27, and MERs-gd33. Host-derived adjuvants such as CCL28, CCL27, RANTES, TCA3, and GM-CSF have shown significant improvements in immune responses, underscoring their potential to bolster both systemic and mucosal immunity. In conclusion, we believe that host-derived adjuvants like HBD-2, CD40L, and LL-37 offer significant advantages over synthetic options in vaccine development, underscoring the need for clinical trials to validate their efficacy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1538301","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]],"date-time":"2025-03-13T07:06:33Z","timestamp":1741849593000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Harnessing immunotherapeutic molecules and diagnostic biomarkers as human-derived adjuvants for MERS-CoV vaccine development"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Abdullah 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