{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T00:38:14Z","timestamp":1793147894142,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":155,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,13]],"date-time":"2025-05-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747094400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vaccine adjuvants, as key components in enhancing vaccine immunogenicity, play a vital role in modern vaccinology. This review systematically examines the historical evolution and mechanisms of vaccine adjuvants, with particular emphasis on innovative advancements in aluminum-based adjuvants, emulsion-based adjuvants, and nucleic acid adjuvants (e.g., CpG oligonucleotides). Specifically, aluminum adjuvants enhance immune responses through particle formation\/antigen adsorption, inflammatory cascade activation, and T-cell stimulation. Emulsion adjuvants amplify immunogenicity via antigen depot effects and localized inflammation, while nucleic acid adjuvants like CpG oligonucleotides directly activate B cells and dendritic cells to promote Th1-type immune responses and memory T-cell generation. The article further explores the prospective applications of these novel adjuvants in combating emerging pathogens (including influenza and SARS-CoV-2), particularly highlighting their significance in improving vaccine potency and durability. Moreover, this review underscores the critical importance of adjuvant development in next-generation vaccine design and provides theoretical foundations for creating safer, effective adjuvant.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1557415","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,13]],"date-time":"2025-05-13T05:29:02Z","timestamp":1747114142000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["The recent advances in vaccine adjuvants"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Jiayin","family":"Xing","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangxiang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaotian","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ren","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingrui","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ningning","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8010128","article-title":"Better adjuvants for better vaccines: progress in adjuvant delivery systems, modifications, and adjuvant-antigen codelivery","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2015.15.2.51","article-title":"Recent advances of vaccine adjuvants for infectious diseases","volume":"15","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immune Netw"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000525468","article-title":"Whole-cell and acellular pertussis vaccine: reflections on efficacy","volume":"31","author":"Alghounaim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med Princ Pract"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11111704","article-title":"Advancements in vaccine adjuvants: the journey from alum to nano formulations","volume":"11","author":"Moni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-021-00163-y","article-title":"Emerging concepts in the science of vaccine adjuvants","volume":"20","author":"Pulendran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14020423","article-title":"Recent advances in the development of toll-like receptor agonist-based vaccine adjuvants for infectious diseases","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01557-7","article-title":"Vaccine adjuvants: mechanisms and platforms","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1043109","article-title":"New-age vaccine adjuvants, their development, and future perspective","volume":"14","author":"Verma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.04.048","article-title":"Safety of AS03-adjuvanted influenza vaccines: A review of the evidence","volume":"37","author":"Cohet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.1097","article-title":"A two-dose hepatitis B vaccine for adults (Heplisav-B)","volume":"60","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med Lett Drugs Ther"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.11.29","article-title":"Recent clinical experience with vaccines using MPL- and QS-21-containing adjuvant systems","volume":"10","author":"Gar\u00e7on","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert Rev Vaccines"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00126-3","article-title":"RTS,S\/AS01 malaria vaccine-proven safe and effective","volume":"23","author":"Bj\u00f6rkman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2020.12.008","article-title":"Aluminium adjuvants in vaccines - 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