{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T03:29:43Z","timestamp":1790652583602,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]],"date-time":"2025-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743033600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In March 2020, the rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 prompted global vaccination campaigns to mitigate COVID-19 disease severity and mortality. The 2-dose BNT162b2-mRNA vaccine effectively reduced infection and mortality rates, however, waning vaccine effectiveness necessitated the introduction of a third vaccine dose or booster.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Aim<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To assess the magnitude and longevity of booster-induced immunity, we conducted a longitudinal study of SARS-CoV-2 specific cellular and humoral immune responses among Qatar\u2019s vulnerable craft and manual worker community. We also investigated the impact of prior naturally acquired immunity on booster vaccination efficacy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Seventy healthy participants were enrolled in the study, of whom half had prior SARS-CoV-2 infection. Blood samples were collected before and after booster vaccination to evaluate immune responses through SARS-CoV-2 specific ELISpots, IgG ELISA, neutralization assays, and flow cytometric immunophenotyping.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>T cell analysis revealed increased Th1 cytokine responses, marked by enhanced IFN-\u03b3 release, in recently infected participants, which was further enhanced by booster vaccination for up to 6-months. Furthermore, booster vaccination stimulated cytotoxic responses in infection-na\u00efve participants, characterized by granzyme B production. Both natural SARS-CoV-2 infection and booster vaccination induced robust and durable SARS-CoV-2 specific humoral immune responses, with high neutralizing antibody levels. Prior natural infection was also linked to an increased number of class-switched B cells prior to booster vaccination.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings underscore the importance of booster vaccination in enhancing anti-viral immunity across both infection-na\u00efve and previously infected individuals, enhancing distinct arms of the anti-viral immune response and prolonging naturally acquired immunity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1557426","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]],"date-time":"2025-03-27T20:36:06Z","timestamp":1743107766000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Longitudinal cellular and humoral immune responses following COVID-19 BNT162b2-mRNA-based booster vaccination of craft and manual workers in Qatar"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Remy","family":"Thomas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Zaqout","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bakhita","family":"Meqbel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Umar","family":"Jafar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nishant N.","family":"Vaikath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdullah","family":"Aldushain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adviti","family":"Naik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hibah","family":"Shaath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neyla S.","family":"Al-Akl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdi","family":"Adam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Houda Y. 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