{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T20:20:40Z","timestamp":1787602840607,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759708800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000272","name":"National Institute for Health and Care Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000272","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>CD4+ Th9 cells have been associated with inflammatory and allergic diseases. IL-9\/Th9 can function as both positive and negative immune regulators, but their protective effects against <jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>(Mtb) are unknown. We found that Th9 cells were associated with mycobacteria-specific T cell responses primed by latent tuberculosis infection and BCG vaccination.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>To study TB-specific Th9 protective effects, we generated Th9 cells from ESAT6-specific TCR transgenic mice and healthy human donors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Both murine and human Th9 cells significantly inhibited intracellular mycobacterial growth. In both <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> models, IL-9 neutralization strongly reduced Th9 protective effects, and IL-9 treatment alone inhibited intracellular mycobacteria. ESAT-6-specific Th9 and Th1 cells were adoptively transferred into na\u00efve Rag1\/2<jats:sup>-\/-<\/jats:sup> recipients before aerosol Mtb infection. Th9 cells provided robust immunity as protective as Th1 cells, significantly reducing bacteria and pathologic changes post-infection. Differential persistence of Th9 vs. Th1 cell phenotypes was confirmed <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>, and lung tissue qRT-PCR studies demonstrated the absence of IFN-\u03b3 responses in Th9-transferred mice, combined with unique expression of the Th9 specific markers IL-9, IL-10 and PU.1.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Th9 cells can provide important protection against Mtb infection, and should be targeted with future TB vaccine strategies. Furthermore, Th9 cells appear to utilize a novel protective mechanism independent from Th1-mediated protective responses.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1581286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T05:22:30Z","timestamp":1759728150000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Th9 cells provide protective TB immunity"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Mei","family":"Xia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Azra","family":"Blazevic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huan","family":"Ning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher 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