{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T10:45:02Z","timestamp":1780051502716,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757980800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>The current conventional therapy for oesophageal cancer is unable to effectively eliminate oesophageal cancer cells as a result of cancer stem cells (CSCs). These CSCs are the main factors responsible for treatment failure and tumour relapse associated with the present conventional oesophageal cancer therapy. A nano-immunoconjugate-based photodynamic therapy (PDT) proposes a potential approach to eliminate these CSCs efficiently.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>In this study, we examined the mode of cell death action induced by the nano-immunoconjugates (NIC) mediated PDT comprising aluminium phthalocyanine tetra sulfonic acid chloride (AlPcS<jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>Cl), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and anti-CD271 antibody (AlPcS<jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>Cl-AuNPs-anti-CD271) against human oesophageal CSCs <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>. The oesophageal CSCs were treated with NIC-mediated PDT, and their impacts on cell viability, oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane, efflux of cytochrome c protein, caspase 3\/7 activity, and cell death mechanism were examined. We further evaluated the effects of the treatment on the various phases of the cell cycle, DNA damage response pathways, and autophagy.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Findings from this study showed that NIC-mediated PDT significantly inhibited the cell growth of oesophageal CSCs, promoted reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial-mediated apoptotic cell death through the alteration of mitochondrial membrane potential \u0394\u03c8m, high efflux of cytochrome c protein, high activity of caspase 3\/7 protease, and early apoptosis. Moreover, NIC-mediated PDT triggered cell cycle checkpoint activity in the G0\/G1 phase, stimulated DNA damage response by increased DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) and ATM (ataxia-telangiectasia mutated) upregulation, and activated an autophagy action.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>The outcomes from this study showed the anticancer efficiency of gold nano-immunoconjugate-based PDT against human oesophageal CSCs. Overall, this study provides a rationale for gold nano-immunoconjugate-based PDT for a promising therapeutic application in the clinical treatment of oesophageal cancer.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1585251","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T05:35:09Z","timestamp":1758000909000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Cell death mechanisms induced by gold nano-immunoconjugates-mediated photodynamic therapy against human oesophageal cancer stem cells"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Onyisi 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