{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T20:36:31Z","timestamp":1758054991712,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>A better understanding of post-exposure immune responses in vaccinated individuals, particularly infants, is needed.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using a rhesus macaque model, we compared recipients of mRNA- or protein-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines administered in infancy with unvaccinated controls 7 days post-SARS-CoV-2 virus challenge. Mass cytometry profiling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and dissociated mediastinal lymph node cells at 7 days post-challenge revealed tissue-specific differences between groups, representing a snapshot of immune activity at this point.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Vaccinated animals showed lower frequencies of activated CD8+ T cells in blood and lower levels of monocyte and B cell subsets in lymph nodes, aligning with lower viral loads and milder pathology. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells\u2014commonly depleted in circulation during severe human COVID-19\u2014were preserved in the blood of vaccinated groups. <jats:italic>Ex vivo<\/jats:italic> stimulation demonstrated heightened inflammatory cell signaling from unvaccinated rhesus macaques, correlating with worse clinical outcomes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings enhance our understanding of a critical nonhuman primate model and underscore the utility of single-cell, tissue-level analyses in evaluating next-generation pediatric SARS-CoV-2 vaccine strategies.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1599408","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T05:28:29Z","timestamp":1757914109000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative single-cell immune responses in peripheral blood and lymph node of immunized SARS-CoV-2 challenged infant rhesus macaques"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Sasha","family":"Anronikov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cameron","family":"Meikle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emma C.","family":"Milligan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nilanjan","family":"Mukherjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zach","family":"Bjornson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Brice","family":"Gaudilli\u00e8re","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sizun","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sallie R.","family":"Permar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Koen K. 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