{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:17:35Z","timestamp":1787026655113,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":169,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]],"date-time":"2025-07-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752105600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Cancer has remained the second leading cause of death worldwide for over a century. Despite significant advances, effectively targeting cancer cells and overcoming therapeutic challenges remain critical goals. In this review, we focus on advanced metastatic prostate tumors, where the patients\u2019 five-year survival rate is less than 35%. While standard androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) has been effective for most prostate cancer patients, recurrence of aggressive tumors is common, emphasizing an urgent need for new treatment strategies. Immunotherapy has gained attention for its potential to harness the immune system against cancer cells. Among these, oncolytic virotherapy stands out for its tumor-specific tropism, its ability to transform or convert the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment by enhancing immune cell infiltration, and its capacity for therapeutic gene delivery. This review explores the background of commonly used viruses, evaluation models (including cell culture, animal models,\n                    <jats:italic>ex vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    platforms, and clinical trials), and the anticipated outcomes and challenges of oncolytic virotherapy. By addressing these aspects, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state and future directions of oncolytic virotherapy models in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1626432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]],"date-time":"2025-07-10T05:32:01Z","timestamp":1752125521000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Experimental models for developing oncolytic virotherapy for metastatic prostate cancer"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Ying-Cheng","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marxa Le\u00e3o","family":"Figueiredo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2456825","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.56825","article-title":"Trends in prostate cancer incidence and mortality rates","volume":"8","author":"Van Blarigan","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21820","article-title":"Cancer statistics, 2024","volume":"74","author":"Siegel","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA: A Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9104","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-64073-6","article-title":"Prognosis of prostate cancer and bone metastasis pattern of patients: a SEER-based study and a local hospital based study from China","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8010074","article-title":"Application of prostate cancer models for preclinical study: advantages and limitations of cell lines, patient-derived xenografts, and three-dimensional culture of patient-derived cells","volume":"8","author":"Namekawa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2651","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12092651","article-title":"Cellular and molecular progression of prostate cancer: models for basic and preclinical research","volume":"12","author":"Saranyutanon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/ERC-12\u20130285","article-title":"Current mouse and cell models in prostate cancer research","volume":"20","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocr Relat Cancer"},{"key":"B7","article-title":"Androgen-independent prostate cancer progression in the TRAMP model","volume":"57","author":"Gingrich","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1078-1439(97)82844-X","article-title":"Transgenic models for prostate cancer research","volume":"2","author":"Greenberg","year":"1996","journal-title":"Urol Oncol"},{"key":"B9","article-title":"Characterization of prostatic epithelial cell lines derived from transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model","volume":"57","author":"Foster","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0960-0760(95)00001-G","article-title":"Progression to androgen insensitivity in a novelin vitro mouse model for prostate cancer","volume":"52","author":"Baley","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(89)90625-9","article-title":"Multistage carcinogenesis induced by ras and myc oncogenes in a reconstituted organ","volume":"56","author":"Thompson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1581528","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402X.2019.1596006","article-title":"Oncolytic viruses: how \u201clytic\u201d must they be for therapeutic efficacy","volume":"8","author":"Davola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-190412740-00001","article-title":"THE INFLUENCE OF COMPLICATING DISEASES UPON LEUKAEMIA.: cases of tuberculosis and leukoemia. 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