{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]],"date-time":"2026-09-05T18:02:30Z","timestamp":1788631350923,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The rapid advancement of vaccines and immunotherapies has significantly improved public health. However, a significant translational gap remains between basic research and clinical application, largely attributed to the disconnect between\n                    <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    studies and\n                    <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    models. To bridge this gap,\n                    <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    models of immune organs, including bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils, have emerged as a promising solution. By integrating cutting-edge technologies such as\n                    <jats:italic>ex vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    culture, microfluidic chips, engineered tissues, and organoid models, researchers have successfully established a new-generation\n                    <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    immune simulation platform. This review systematically summarizes recent progress in immune organ-based\n                    <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    models, outlines the current technological landscape and highlights the unique advantages of immune organoids within this field. Notably, we classify immune organoids into strictly and broadly defined categories based on their origin and construction methodology, while emphasizing the importance of multi-model integration. This platform provides a novel framework for advancing translational immunology research, particularly in the fields of adaptive immunity and vaccine development.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1632117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T04:12:14Z","timestamp":1754453534000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Immune organoids: emerging platforms for modeling and analyzing human adaptive immunity"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tianlong","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dingkun","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meilin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yijing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Su","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ding","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bo","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hua-Ji","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lian-Feng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-bioeng-071813-104814","article-title":"Biomaterial strategies for immunomodulation","volume":"17","author":"Hotaling","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu Rev BioMed Eng"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(21)02796-3","article-title":"Estimating excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic analysis of COVID-19-related mortality, 2020-21","volume":"399","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13770","DOI":"10.1111\/cpr.13770","article-title":"Synergy between pluripotent stem cell-derived macrophages and self-renewing macrophages: Envisioning a promising avenue for the modelling and cell therapy of infectious diseases","volume":"58","author":"Peng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Prolif"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-042320-023055","article-title":"Organoid models for infectious disease","volume":"73","author":"Blutt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu Rev Med"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02247","article-title":"Immunosenescence and its hallmarks: How to oppose aging strategically? 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