{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T03:26:52Z","timestamp":1790652412921,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769644800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000871","name":"Mayo Clinic","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>While SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are highly effective in healthy individuals, the magnitude and durability of humoral and cellular responses in patients with solid malignancies receiving chemotherapy remain understudied. Previous reports suggest that patients with cancer may not mount adequate immune response after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Additionally, most studies focused on humoral responses, while data regarding cellular immune responses are scarce. In this study, we evaluated humoral and cellular responses in patients with solid tumors receiving chemotherapy compared to healthy individuals up to one year after vaccinations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Patients aged \u226518 who were willing to receive the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine were enrolled. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoassays were used to detect antibodies against nucleocapsid and spike proteins. Human IFN-\u03b3 Fluorospot assay was used to determine antigen\u2212specific T-cell responses. Data were compared between groups using Mann\u2212Whitney test for continuous variables and Fisher\u2019s exact test for categorical variables.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 67 subjects (47 patients with cancer and 20 healthy individuals) were included. 1\u20133 months following the second vaccine doses, 96% of patients with cancer and 100% of healthy individuals demonstrated a positive humoral response. While the positivity rate was not significantly different, patients with cancer had significantly lower spike IgG antibodies than healthy individuals. However, this difference diminished at 6 months when patients with cancer had increased antibodies compared to decreased antibodies in the healthy cohort and no difference was noticed at 12-month. Patients with cancer developed a similar antigen-specific T-cell response as healthy individuals at 1\u20133 months, 6 months and 12 months. There were no significant differences when comparing patients aged \u2264 55 years vs. &amp;gt;55 years, stages I-III vs. IV, single vs. multiple chemotherapy, and BNT162b2 vs. mRNA-1273 vaccines. There was a significant moderate correlation between neutralization and antibody levels at 12 months. However, despite patients with cancer having a significantly higher COVID risk score, there were no significant differences in COVID-19 infection and hospitalization between patients with cancer and healthy individuals.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite initial impaired antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations, patients with solid malignancies receiving chemotherapy effectively generated long-term cellular and humoral responses by 6 and 12 months, leading to similar infection and hospitalization rates compared to healthy individuals.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1690495","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T06:42:32Z","timestamp":1769668952000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Long-term cellular and humoral responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations in patients with solid malignancies undergoing chemotherapy"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Andrew","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian","family":"Necela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuo","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Quantitative Health Science, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Davitte","family":"Cogen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mikolaj A.","family":"Wieczorek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Quantitative Health Science, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashita","family":"Mummareddy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marites","family":"Acampora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gina A.","family":"Reynolds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pooja P.","family":"Advani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alvaro","family":"Moreno-Aspitia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melanie D.","family":"Swift","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preventive, Occupational and Aerospace Medicine, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abinash","family":"Virk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Disease, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adil E.","family":"Bharucha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher P.","family":"Marquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tushar C.","family":"Patel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keith L.","family":"Knutson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saranya","family":"Chumsri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic","place":["Jacksonville, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01325-6","article-title":"Antibody responses to the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine in individuals previously infected with SARS-CoV-2","volume":"24","author":"Ebinger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2032195","article-title":"Durability of Responses after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-1273 Vaccination","volume":"384","author":"Widge","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2034577","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine","volume":"383","author":"Polack","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2035389","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine","volume":"384","author":"Baden","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2101544","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against Covid-19","volume":"384","author":"Sadoff","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Engl J Med"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.904686","article-title":"The robustness of cellular immunity determines the fate of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"13","author":"Moga","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2206573","article-title":"Covid-19 vaccines - immunity, variants, boosters","volume":"387","author":"Barouch","year":"2022","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.848582","article-title":"Adaptive immune responses and immunity to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"13","author":"Primorac","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01122-w","article-title":"The T cell immune response against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"23","author":"Moss","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"abm0829","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm0829","article-title":"mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern","volume":"374","author":"Goel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI167955","article-title":"Durability of immune responses to mRNA booster vaccination against COVID-19","volume":"133","author":"Arunachalam","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.26335","article-title":"Durability of heterologous and homologous COVID-19 vaccine boosts","volume":"5","author":"Tan","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2200525","article-title":"Memory B cells and memory T cells induced by SARS-CoV-2 booster vaccination or infection show different dynamics and responsiveness to the omicron variant","volume":"209","author":"Mise-Omata","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djaa168","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and outcomes of COVID-19-infected cancer patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"113","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Natl Cancer Inst"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.10880","article-title":"Differences in outcomes and factors associated with mortality among patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection and cancer compared with those without cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Khoury","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"pkaa102","DOI":"10.1093\/jncics\/pkaa102","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of cancer patients affected by a novel coronavirus","volume":"5","author":"Venkatesulu","year":"2021","journal-title":"JNCI Cancer Spectr"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-021-01177-0","article-title":"COVID-19 infection in adult patients with hematological Malignancies: a European Hematology Association Survey (EPICOVIDEHA)","volume":"14","author":"Pagano","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Hematol Oncol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2021.6199","article-title":"Time-dependent COVID-19 mortality in patients with cancer: an updated analysis of the onCovid registry","volume":"8","author":"Group","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00277-020-04328-4","article-title":"COVID-19 in cancer patients: clinical characteristics and outcome\u2014an analysis of the LEOSS registry","volume":"100","author":"R\u00fcthrich","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann Hematol"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-022-00610-8","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccines in patients with cancer: immunogenicity, efficacy and safety","volume":"19","author":"Fendler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Rev Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2021.2159","article-title":"Difference in SARS-CoV-2 antibody status between patients with cancer and health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan","volume":"7","author":"Yazaki","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2021.2155","article-title":"Evaluation of seropositivity following BNT162b2 messenger RNA vaccination for SARS-CoV-2 in patients undergoing treatment for cancer","volume":"7","author":"Massarweh","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2021011568","article-title":"Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia","volume":"137","author":"Herishanu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(21)00213-8","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of one versus two doses of the COVID-19 vaccine BNT162b2 for patients with cancer: interim analysis of a prospective observational study","volume":"22","author":"Monin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac103","article-title":"Prospective evaluation of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine responses across a broad spectrum of immunocompromising conditions: the COVID-19 vaccination in the immunocompromised study (COVICS)","volume":"75","author":"Haidar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.21.01891","article-title":"Immunogenicity and reactogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients with cancer: the CANVAX cohort study","volume":"40","author":"Naranbhai","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2021.12.006","article-title":"Impaired seroconversion after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines in patients with solid tumours receiving anticancer treatment","volume":"163","author":"Amatu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2021.10.014","article-title":"Immunogenicity and risk of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection after Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination in patients with cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"160","author":"Becerril-Gaitan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2021.08.035","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccines in adult cancer patients with solid tumours undergoing active treatment: Seropositivity and safety. A prospective observational study in Italy","volume":"157","author":"Cavanna","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13184621","article-title":"Responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in patients with cancer (ReCOVer study): A prospective cohort study of the Hellenic cooperative oncology group","volume":"13","author":"Linardou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248348","article-title":"Establishment of a well-characterized SARS-CoV-2 lentiviral pseudovirus neutralization assay using 293T cells with stable expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2","volume":"16","author":"Neerukonda","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s13058-015-0669-x","article-title":"Lymphocyte depletion and repopulation after chemotherapy for primary breast cancer","volume":"18","author":"Verma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2021.06.002","article-title":"Seroconversion rates following COVID-19 vaccination among patients with cancer","volume":"39","author":"Thakkar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2025.127633","article-title":"Humoral immune response to Covid-19 vaccination in patients with cancer - Results from the ANRS0001S COV-POPART study","volume":"63","author":"Luong Nguyen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2021.07.016","article-title":"Antibody and T cell immune responses following mRNA COVID-19 vaccination in patients with cancer","volume":"39","author":"Ehmsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s43018-021-00274-w","article-title":"Adaptive immunity and neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern following vaccination in patients with cancer: the CAPTURE study","volume":"2","author":"Fendler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Cancer"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1664072","article-title":"Impact of chemotherapy on humoral and cellular immune responses to COVID-19 vaccination in patients with solid tumors","volume":"16","author":"Favalli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2002","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.05.13.21257129","article-title":"Immune responses to COVID-19 mRNA vaccines in patients with solid tumors on active, immunosuppressive cancer therapy","volume":"27","author":"Shroff","year":"2021","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/v17060848","article-title":"Humoral and cellular immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 in participants with head and neck cancer","volume":"17","author":"Marutescu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-025-05258-9","article-title":"Vaccine-induced immunity is maintained in glioma patients relative to other solid tumours","volume":"176","author":"Yuile","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Neurooncol"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1690495\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T09:25:51Z","timestamp":1771925151000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1690495\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]},"references-count":40,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1690495"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1690495","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]},"article-number":"1690495"}}