{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T08:38:15Z","timestamp":1767947895899,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767916800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006492","name":"Division of Intramural Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006492","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Helminth co-infection are common in tuberculosis (TB) endemic regions and alter host immunity. However, their impact on immune responses in TB infection (TBI) remains incompletely defined.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We analyzed QuantiFERON (QFT) supernatants and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from TBI+Hel+ (\n                      <jats:italic>S. stercoralis<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:italic>(Ss)<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection) (n=15) and TBI+Hel\u2212 (n=23) individuals. Cytokine levels were assessed at baseline and following TB antigenic stimulation (TBAg1 and TBAg2), as well as mitogenic stimulation. PBMCs were stimulated with\n                      <jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>M. tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) H37Rv, and antimycobacterial immunity was assessed using an\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      mycobacterial growth inhibition assay (MGIA) and multiplex cytokine assays.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We measured Type 1 (IFN-\u03b3, TNF-\u03b1, IL-2), Type 17 (IL-17, IL-22), and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2) in QuantiFERON (QFT) supernatants from TBI individuals with (TBI+Hel+) and without (TBI+Hel\u2212) infection. TBI+Hel+ individuals exhibited significantly reduced mycobacterial growth inhibition compared with TBI+Hel\u2212 individuals, reflected by higher normalized mycobacterial growth (\u0394 log10 CFU). Cytokine analysis showed suppression of Th1\/Th17 (IFN-\u03b3, IL-2, TNF-\u03b1, IL-17, GM-CSF) and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, IL-12p70, IL-18) in TBI+Hel+ individuals, alongside increased Th2\/regulatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Ss<\/jats:italic>\n                      co-infection impairs host antimycobacterial control by skewing TBI immune responses toward Th2\/regulatory pathways at the expense of protective Th1\/Th17 mechanisms. Our data demonstrate that the importance of considering\n                      <jats:italic>Ss<\/jats:italic>\n                      co-infection into account when developing TB control and vaccination strategies in endemic areas.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1735029","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T06:40:19Z","timestamp":1767940819000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Strongyloides stercoralis coinfection impairs immune control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in TB infected 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