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Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Host\u2013parasite interactions are ubiquitous and are important drivers of host diversification and evolution. In particular, host immune systems are frequent targets of parasite-driven selection. The resulting rapid evolution of immune genes is usually framed as an ongoing \u2018arms race\u2019 between a co-evolving pair of host and parasite species. However, immune evolution may often be driven by the acquisition of a new and unfamiliar parasite. For instance, when marine populations of threespine stickleback (\n                      <jats:italic>Gasterosteus aculeatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) colonized freshwater lakes approximately 12,000 years ago, they encountered the freshwater-restricted cestode\n                      <jats:italic>Schistocephalus solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                      and evolved resistance.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We compared the transcriptomic responses of lab-reared sticklebacks from three populations of stickleback with varying cestode susceptibilities when exposed to several immune stimuli (alum, cestode protein, or a control injection).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The resulting changes in expression reveal strong evidence of shared and population-specific responses during the evolution of defense against a new parasite.  Our investigation highlights the roles of several key immunological processes in underlying a general physiological response to tissue damage (fibrosis) and the importance of regulating fibrosis as a necessary step for its co-option into defense against\n                      <jats:italic>S. solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                      tapeworms. Furthermore, we highlighted changes in the expression of fibrosis-associated genes, which facilitate faster and more targeted deployment of this defense mechanism against parasites. Fish from the most fibrosis-prone population exhibited constitutively higher expression of fibrosis-associated genes and stronger downregulation of these genes after an initial stimulus from injected cestode proteins.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our results provide strong evidence that changes in gene regulation and increased negative feedback to mitigate immunopathology are essential steps in the evolutionary co-option of an existing pathway to defend against a new parasite infection.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1697157","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T05:28:47Z","timestamp":1772083727000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Changes in gene regulation are 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