{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T19:36:47Z","timestamp":1790883407577,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772064000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Polymerized allergen extracts are widely used in allergen immunotherapy (AIT) to reduce allergenicity and enhance safety. However, the impact of cross-linking stoichiometry on the structural and allergenic properties of these polymers remains insufficiently characterized. This study systematically investigates how varying glutaraldehyde-to-protein ratios influence the resulting polymers and their potential relevance for AIT.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Pollen extracts from\n                      <jats:italic>Phleum pratense<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Betula verrucosa<\/jats:italic>\n                      were polymerized using five different glutaraldehyde-to-protein ratios. The resulting polymers were structurally characterized using SDS-PAGE, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and mass spectrometry (MS). Allergenicity was evaluated by measuring the immunoglobulin E (IgE) reactivity through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blotting, and mast cell activation test (MAT). Immunogenicity was assessed by analyzing the serum-specific IgG and\n                      <jats:italic>ex vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      lymphocyte responses in mice immunized with the least allergenic polymer formulation.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>All cross-linking conditions produced polymers with distinct differences in size, morphology, and yield. Despite retaining similar peptide profiles to native allergens, as confirmed by MS, the polymers exhibited increased stability, as shown by NMR, and significantly reduced allergenicity, according to ELISA and MAT. Notably, increased polymer size and density, as determined by NMR and TEM, correlated with lower allergenicity. The most extensively cross-linked high-density polymers, optimized for minimal allergenicity, elicited immunogenic responses comparable to those induced by native extracts when tested against unmodified allergens.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Cross-linking stoichiometry critically shapes the structural and immunological properties of polymerized allergen extracts. Adjusting the glutaraldehyde-to-protein ratio to produce highly polymerized, dense polymers enables a well-balanced profile of safety and efficacy for use in AIT.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1748277","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T14:07:59Z","timestamp":1772114879000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Impact of cross-linking stoichiometry on the structure and allergenicity of glutaraldehyde-polymerized allergen extracts"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sandra","family":"Sivill","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcos","family":"Vi\u00f1uela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Servicio de Inmunolog\u00eda, Hospital Cl\u00ednico San Carlos","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Investigaci\u00f3n, Hospital Cl\u00ednico San Carlos","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Garc\u00eda-Puentes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucia","family":"Moreno-Serna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria Hospital Universitario de La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid (UAM)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emilio","family":"Nu\u00f1ez-Borque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria Hospital Universitario de La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid (UAM)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Jim\u00e9nez-Saiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria Hospital Universitario de La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid (UAM)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Faculty of Experimental Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria (UFV)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Department of Medicine, McMaster Immunology Research Centre (MIRC), Schroeder Allergy and Immunology Research Institute (SAIRI), McMaster University","place":["Hamilton, ON, Canada"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Vila-Gonzalo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miguel","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Arquero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Servicio de Inmunolog\u00eda, Hospital Cl\u00ednico San Carlos","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irene","family":"Real-Ar\u00e9valo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Servicio de Inmunolog\u00eda, Hospital Cl\u00ednico San Carlos","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Investigaci\u00f3n, Hospital Cl\u00ednico San Carlos","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvador","family":"Iborra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jose Luis","family":"Subiza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jose Fernando","family":"Cantillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Department, Inmunotek, S.L., Alcal\u00e1 de Henares","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","article-title":"Studies on \u201callergoids\u201d prepared from naturally occurring allergens. 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