{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T19:34:27Z","timestamp":1791315267960,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770076800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Stroke remains a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, and inflammation is increasingly recognized as a key driver of acute injury and secondary neurodegeneration. Among post-stroke immune mediators, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have emerged as critical amplifiers of thromboinflammation and cerebrovascular injury. Parallel developments highlight microglia and infiltrating macrophages as key regulators of sterile inflammation in ischemic stroke (IS), intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). However, the bidirectional interaction between NETs and microglia\/macrophages has not been comprehensively analyzed despite its translational importance. This review describes the mechanistic pathways by which NET components activate microglial pattern recognition receptors, triggering inflammasome activation, inflammatory signaling cascades, and cytokine release. Activated microglia, in turn, promote neutrophil recruitment and NETosis, creating a self-reinforcing cycle. Evidence from ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke demonstrates how NET-microglia interactions lead to neurovascular complications such as blood-brain barrier disruption, microvascular dysfunction, and neuronal injury. We examine therapeutic strategies targeting NET formation and destruction, microglial modulation, and combination approaches to interrupt this inflammatory axis. We highlight novel biomarker and imaging approaches that may enable personalized immunotherapy. Together, these strategies position the NET-microglia\/macrophage axis as a promising immunomodulatory target in ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, offering new avenues for precision therapy development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1752471","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T05:21:56Z","timestamp":1770096116000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Neutrophil extracellular traps and microglia\/macrophages interactions in stroke: from thromboinflammation to immunotherapy"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Nurittin","family":"Ardic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Med-International United Kingdom Health Agency Ltd.","place":["Nuneaton, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rasit","family":"Dinc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INVAMED Medical Innovation Institute","place":["New York, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","article-title":"Acute stroke","volume-title":"StatPearls","author":"Tadi","year":"2025"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/17474930241267353","article-title":"Hyperacute ischemic stroke care-Current treatment and future directions","volume":"19","author":"Campbell","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Stroke"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(23)00277-6","article-title":"Pragmatic solutions to reduce the global burden of stroke: a World Stroke Organization-Lancet Neurology Commission","volume":"22","author":"Feigin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30078-X","article-title":"Global brain inflammation in stroke","volume":"18","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint15040076","article-title":"Targeting neutrophil extracellular traps for stroke prognosis: A promising path","volume":"15","author":"Liaptsi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurol Int"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2022.108328","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps: A novel target for the treatment of stroke","volume":"241","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e154225","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI154225","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps regulate ischemic stroke brain injury","volume":"132","author":"Denorme","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.121.034289","article-title":"Studying stroke thrombus composition after thrombectomy: what can we learn","volume":"52","author":"Staessens","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24993","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps in ischemic stroke thrombi","volume":"82","author":"Laridan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43441-024-00668-9","article-title":"Role of neutrophils as therapeutic targets in intracerebral hemorrhage","volume":"58","author":"Ardic","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ther Innov Regul Sci"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1515\/mr-2023-0034","article-title":"Macrophages and microglia in inflammation and neuroinflammation underlying different pain states","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med Rev (2021)"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1537566","article-title":"Research trends on neutrophil extracellular traps in ischemic stroke: a scientific metrology study","volume":"16","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.624597","article-title":"The trinity of cGAS, TLR9, and ALRs guardians of the cellular galaxy against host-derived self-DNA","volume":"11","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.683803","article-title":"NLRP3 inflammasome assembly in neutrophils is supported by PAD4 and promotes NETosis under sterile conditions","volume":"12","author":"M\u00fcnzer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31083\/JIN26357","article-title":"Inhibition of neutrophil extracellular traps: A potential therapeutic strategy for hemorrhagic stroke","volume":"24","author":"Dinc","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Integr Neurosci"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-024-01563-4","article-title":"A promising frontier: targeting NETs for stroke treatment breakthroughs","volume":"22","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Commun Signal"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awv379","article-title":"Pharmacological targeting of CSF1R inhibits microglial proliferation and prevents the progression of Alzheimer\u2019s-like pathology","volume":"139","author":"Olmos-Alonso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092385","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps kill bacteria","volume":"303","author":"Brinkmann","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.105","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps in immunity and disease","volume":"18","author":"Papayannopoulos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11182889","article-title":"Neutrophil activated by the famous and potent PMA (Phorbol myristate acetate)","volume":"11","author":"Damascena","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nchembio.1735","article-title":"Inhibition of PAD4 activity is sufficient to disrupt mouse and human NET formation","volume":"11","author":"Lewis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat Chem Biol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.32604\/biocell.2025.072337","article-title":"Molecular and cellular mechanisms of neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular diseases: from NET formation to mechanistic therapeutic targeting","volume":"50","author":"Dinc","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biocell"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-020-08804-7","article-title":"A review of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in disease: potential anti-NETs therapeutics","volume":"61","author":"Mutua","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Rev Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2013-04-457671","article-title":"NETosis: how vital is it","volume":"122","author":"Yipp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2847","article-title":"Infection-induced NETosis is a dynamic process involving neutrophil multitasking in vivo","volume":"18","author":"Yipp","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12968\/hmed.2024.0660","article-title":"Relationship between neutrophil extracellular traps and venous thromboembolism: pathophysiological and therapeutic role","volume":"86","author":"Dinc","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br J Hosp Med (Lond)"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2025.1501359","article-title":"Neuroinflammation and acute ischemic stroke: impact on translational research and clinical care","volume":"12","author":"Levinson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Surg"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2488","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16191-y","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps released by neutrophils impair revascularization and vascular remodeling after stroke","volume":"11","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e177003","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.177003","article-title":"A dual-acting DNASE1\/DNASE1L3 biologic prevents autoimmunity and death in genetic and induced lupus models","volume":"9","author":"Stabach","year":"2024","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ctn9010004","article-title":"Therapeutic role of microglia\/macrophage polarization in intracerebral hemorrhage","volume":"9","author":"Dinc","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin Trans Neurosci"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06799-3","article-title":"TREM2-mediated regulation of microglial activity: a promising target for the treatment of ischemic stroke","volume":"23","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-11-98","article-title":"Neuroinflammation and M2 microglia: the good, the bad, and the inflamed","volume":"11","author":"Cherry","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.24501","article-title":"Role of microglia in stroke","volume":"72","author":"Planas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S461795","article-title":"Microglia in ischemic stroke: pathogenesis insights and therapeutic challenges","volume":"17","author":"Shui","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Inflammation Res"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2018.97","article-title":"Targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome in inflammatory diseases","volume":"17","author":"Mangan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2022.929529","article-title":"Glial cells and brain diseases: inflammasomes as relevant pathological entities","volume":"16","author":"Mata-Mart\u00ednez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Cell Neurosci"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/STR.0000000000000436","article-title":"2023 Guideline for the management of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: A guideline from the american heart association\/American stroke association","volume":"54","author":"Hoh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0271678X20953912","article-title":"Distinct peripheral blood monocyte and neutrophil transcriptional programs following intracerebral hemorrhage and different etiologies of ischemic stroke","volume":"41","author":"Carmona-Mora","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Cereb Blood Flow Metab"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2020008913","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps promote tPA-induced brain hemorrhage via cGAS in mice with stroke","volume":"138","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s44161-024-00462-8","article-title":"Stroke and myocardial infarction induce neutrophil extracellular trap release disrupting lymphoid organ structure and immunoglobulin secretion","volume":"3","author":"Tuz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Cardiovasc Res"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e000639","DOI":"10.1161\/SVIN.122.000639","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps in ischemic stroke thrombi are associated with poor clinical outcome","volume":"3","author":"Lapostolle","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stroke Vasc Interv Neurol"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/bc.bc_37_23","article-title":"No-reflow phenomenon following stroke recanalization therapy: Clinical assessment advances: A narrative review","volume":"9","author":"Kan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Circ"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2023.12.005","article-title":"White blood cell subtypes and neutrophil extracellular traps content as biomarkers for stroke etiology in acute ischemic stroke clots retrieved by mechanical thrombectomy","volume":"234","author":"Jabrah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Thromb Res"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.23203","article-title":"Disruptions of occludin and claudin-5 in brain endothelial cells in vitro and in brains of mice with acute liver failure","volume":"50","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2019.101239","article-title":"Programmed necrotic cell death of macrophages: Focus on pyroptosis, necroptosis, and parthanatos","volume":"26","author":"Robinson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Redox Biol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00288","article-title":"The neutrophil\u2019s choice: phagocytose vs make neutrophil extracellular traps","volume":"9","author":"Manfredi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-023-01379-8","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps mediated by platelet microvesicles promote thrombosis and brain injury in acute ischemic stroke","volume":"22","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Commun Signal"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.123.044123","article-title":"Neurovascular inflammation and complications of thrombolysis therapy in stroke","volume":"54","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12975-022-01039-y","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs): A new therapeutic target for neuroinflammation and microthrombosis after subarachnoid hemorrhage","volume":"14","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transl Stroke Res"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12975-022-01074-9","article-title":"The role of neutrophil extracellular traps in early microthrombosis and brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage in mice","volume":"14","author":"Hao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transl Stroke Res"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.124.046969","article-title":"Advances in acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke 2024","volume":"56","author":"Nguyen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13231946","article-title":"High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1): molecular signaling and potential therapeutic strategies","volume":"13","author":"Datta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.678744","article-title":"Immune cells in the BBB disruption after acute ischemic stroke: targets for immune therapy","volume":"12","author":"Qiu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02535","article-title":"Recombinant thrombomodulin suppresses histone-induced neutrophil extracellular trap formation","volume":"10","author":"Shrestha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI83873","article-title":"Neonatal NET-inhibitory factor and related peptides inhibit neutrophil extracellular trap formation","volume":"126","author":"Yost","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1046574","article-title":"Neonatal NET-Inhibitory Factor improves survival in the cecal ligation and puncture model of polymicrobial sepsis by inhibiting neutrophil extracellular traps","volume":"13","author":"de Araujo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/bc.bc_41_25","article-title":"Immunomodulation of microglia\/macrophages and neutrophils as immunotherapeutic targets in ischemic stroke: A narrative review","volume":"23","author":"Ekingen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Circ"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11239-024-03004-y","article-title":"Assessment of associations between neutrophil extracellular trap biomarkers in blood and thrombi in acute ischemic stroke patients","volume":"57","author":"Baumann","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Thromb Thrombolysis"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10143-018-1037-y","article-title":"Laboratory biomarkers of delayed cerebral ischemia after subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review","volume":"43","author":"Jabbarli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosurg Rev"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0692","DOI":"10.1097\/CCE.0000000000000692","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps and delayed cerebral ischemia in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage","volume":"4","author":"Witsch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit Care Explor"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e56441","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0056441","article-title":"18F]DPA-714: direct comparison with [11C]PK11195 in a model of cerebral ischemia in rats","volume":"8","author":"Boutin","year":"2013","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.27145","article-title":"Measurement of blood-brain barrier permeability using dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging with reduced scan time","volume":"80","author":"Bae","year":"2018","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000003566","article-title":"DCE-MRI blood-brain barrier assessment in acute ischemic stroke","volume":"88","author":"Villringer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/14604582251366141","article-title":"Emerging trends in multi-modal artificial intelligence for clinical decision support: A narrative review","volume":"31","author":"Ardic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Health Inf J"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1466543","article-title":"Prediction of hemorrhagic transformation after thrombolysis based on machine learning models combined with platelet distribution width-to-count ratio","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12968\/hmed.2024.0972","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in healthcare: current regulatory landscape and future directions","volume":"86","author":"Ardic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br J Hosp Med (Lond)"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2025.04.007","article-title":"Targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome for inflammatory disease therapy","volume":"46","author":"Cabral","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol Sci"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.332130","article-title":"Myeloperoxidase: a new target for the treatment of stroke","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neural Regener Res"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cei\/uxae057","article-title":"The neutrophil extracellular traps in neurological diseases: an update","volume":"218","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Exp Immunol"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.390964","article-title":"Microglial NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation and therapeutic strategies in depression","volume":"19","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neural Regener Res"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02095-1","article-title":"Platelets and lymphocytes drive progressive penumbral tissue loss during middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice","volume":"18","author":"Schuhmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e658","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.658","article-title":"Macrophage plasticity: signaling pathways, tissue repair, and regeneration","volume":"5","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"MedComm (2020)"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1752471\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T09:29:49Z","timestamp":1771925389000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1752471\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]},"references-count":72,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1752471"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1752471","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]},"article-number":"1752471"}}