{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T20:41:25Z","timestamp":1793911285931,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776902400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of global mortality despite advances in revascularization, pharmacotherapy, and risk stratification. Immune responses to cardiovascular damage are neither temporally linear nor spatially homogeneous; they evolve across overlapping phases and distinct anatomical compartments. Here, we propose a four-dimensional spatiotemporal framework to map immune dynamics in cardiovascular events. Temporally, responses progress from hyperacute thrombo-inflammatory activation to acute inflammation, resolution\/repair, and chronic remodeling. Spatially, immune programs differentiate across the intravascular compartment, infarct\/lesion core, peri-infarct border zone, distant myocardium, and device-tissue interface, each possessing distinct cellular composition, signaling pathways, and therapeutic sensitivities. By integrating molecular imaging, single-cell and spatial transcriptomics, serial biomarker profiling, and computational modeling, we demonstrate how immune activity can be resolved with increasing anatomical and temporal precision. Using neutrophil extracellular traps as a case study, we show how the same effector mechanism can exhibit different effects depending on the phase and microenvironment. Clinical trial experience with anti-inflammatory therapies further emphasizes the need to align target selection and treatment timing with the underlying immunological trajectories. A spatiotemporal approach transforms cardiovascular inflammation from a static risk factor into a measurable and potentially targetable dynamic, site-specific process. Including phase, anatomical niche, and immune phenotype in experimental design and clinical interpretation can improve precise immunomodulation and strengthen translational alignment in cardiovascular medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1809941","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T04:22:35Z","timestamp":1776918155000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Mapping the immune environment: spatiotemporal dynamics in cardiovascular events"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Rasit","family":"Dinc","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"INVAMED Medical Innovation Institute","place":["New York, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nurittin","family":"Ardic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Med-International UK Health Agency Ltd.","place":["Nuneaton, Warwickshire, 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