{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T17:50:21Z","timestamp":1790704221682,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":252,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780617600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Every year, approximately 13 million infants are born preterm (&amp;lt;37 weeks gestation). Preterm-born infants experience disproportionately high infection-related morbidity and mortality, reflecting the immaturity of their immune system, especially early in life. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the phenotype and function of the immune system in preterm infants compared with term infants, with an emphasis on adaptive immunity. At birth, both innate and adaptive immune cells of preterm infants show phenotypic and functional immaturity. In addition, antibody levels are reduced, and immunogenicity of some vaccine components is diminished, contributing to impaired pathogen clearance and suboptimal vaccine responses. During the first year of life, rapid maturation occurs and differences with term infants become less pronounced or disappear. This review provides readers with a framework for understanding the immunologic mechanisms underlying the increased infection risk in preterm-born infants. Recognizing the all-encompassing nature of immune immaturity in preterm infants is essential for the development of integrated strategies to further improve health outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1810170","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T05:36:52Z","timestamp":1780637812000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The immune system of preterm infants: an overview"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Mirjam J.","family":"Esser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Maastricht University Medical Center, MosaKids Children\u2019s Hospital","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]},{"name":"Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction (GROW), Maastricht University","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanne J. C. M.","family":"Claassen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction (GROW), Maastricht University","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]},{"name":"Laboratory of Pediatrics, Maastricht University Medical Center, MosaKids Children\u2019s Hospital","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melania P.","family":"Ebrahimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Maastricht University Medical Center, MosaKids Children\u2019s Hospital","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stan","family":"Berkers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Maastricht University Medical Center, MosaKids Children\u2019s Hospital","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim G. A. M.","family":"Wolfs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction (GROW), Maastricht University","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]},{"name":"Laboratory of Pediatrics, Maastricht University Medical Center, MosaKids Children\u2019s Hospital","place":["Maastricht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magdalena A.","family":"Berkowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Erasmus Medical Center (MC), University Medical Center","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gertjan J. 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