{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T07:02:55Z","timestamp":1779951775991,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs)are significant pathogens responsible for acute respiratory infections in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Among children under five, HPIVs are the second most common viral cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections (ALRIs), surpassed only by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Despite their significant health impact, there are currently no licensed vaccines or specific antiviral treatments for HPIV infection. Recent advances in functional genomics, including CRISPR-Cas9 screening, cDNA library screening, and multi-omics approaches, have enabled the systematic identification of host factors essential at different stages of HPIVs infections. This review aims to systematically summarize the latest evidence on host factors that influence viral entry, replication, assembly, and release, as well as those involved in evasion of innate immunity. Importantly, we contextualize the mechanisms of these host factors within the broader network of virus-host interactions. By integrating these insights, we aim to provide a strong mechanistic foundation for understanding HPIV pathogenesis to accelerate the development of innovative host-directed therapies(HDTs).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1823377","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T06:18:53Z","timestamp":1779949133000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Host factors in parainfluenza virus replication: from entry to innate immunity evasion"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Xueqin","family":"Lin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Infection and Virology, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children\u2019s Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children\u2019s Health","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Core Technologies for the Prevention and Treatment of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Children","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Research Unit of Critical Infection in Children, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yun","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Infection and Virology, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children\u2019s Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children\u2019s Health","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Core Technologies for the Prevention and Treatment of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Children","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Research Unit of Critical Infection in Children, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ling","family":"Jing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NHC Key Laboratory of System Biology of Pathogens and Christophe Merieux Laboratory, National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xia","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NHC Key Laboratory of System Biology of Pathogens and Christophe Merieux Laboratory, National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaobo","family":"Lei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NHC Key Laboratory of System Biology of Pathogens and Christophe Merieux Laboratory, National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengde","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Infection and Virology, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children\u2019s Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children\u2019s Health","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Core Technologies for the Prevention and Treatment of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Children","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Research Unit of Critical Infection in Children, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00218-7","article-title":"Global burden of acute lower respiratory infection associated with human parainfluenza virus in children younger than 5 years for 2018: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00168-19","article-title":"Host-directed antiviral therapy","volume":"33","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0036-1584798","article-title":"Parainfluenza virus infection","volume":"37","author":"Branche","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2015.03.036","article-title":"Amino acid substitutions contributing to \u03b12,6-sialic acid linkage binding specificity of human parainfluenza virus type 3 hemagglutinin\u2013neuraminidase","volume":"589","author":"Fukushima","year":"2015","journal-title":"FEBS Lett"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2014.07.033","article-title":"Terminal sialic acid linkages determine different cell infectivities of human parainfluenza virus type 1 and type 3","author":"Fukushima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.15.8146-8158.2004","article-title":"Role of nucleolin in human parainfluenza virus type 3 infection of human lung epithelial cells","volume":"78","author":"Bose","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.4.1984-1989.2001","article-title":"Polarity of human parainfluenza virus type 3 infection in polarized human lung epithelial A549 cells: Role of microfilament and microtubule","volume":"75","author":"Bose","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B8","article-title":"Host envelope glycoprotein processing proteases are indispensable for entry into human cells by seasonal and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses","volume":"3","author":"Kido","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Mol Genet Med: Int J Biomed Res"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01490-13","article-title":"TMPRSS2 is an activating protease for respiratory parainfluenza viruses","volume":"87","author":"Abe","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031351","article-title":"he transmembrane protease TMPRSS2 as a therapeutic target for COVID-19 treatment","volume":"23","author":"Wettstein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02327-24","article-title":"Human parainfluenza virus 3 field strains undergo extracellular fusion protein cleavage to activate entry","volume":"15","author":"Stearns","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mbio"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2017.07.016","article-title":"TMPRSS2: A potential target for treatment of influenza virus and coronavirus infections","volume":"142","author":"Shen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103255","article-title":"Camostat mesylate inhibits SARS-CoV-2 activation by TMPRSS2-related proteases and its metabolite GBPA exerts antiviral activity","volume":"65","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ebiomedicine"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01226-10","article-title":"Human parainfluenza virus type 2 L protein regions required for interaction with other viral proteins and mRNA capping","volume":"85","author":"Nishio","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01802-16","article-title":"Inclusion body fusion of human parainfluenza virus type 3 regulated by acetylated \u03b1-tubulin enhances viral replication","volume":"91","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2019.10.052","article-title":"PI4KB on inclusion bodies formed by ER membrane remodeling facilitates replication of human parainfluenza virus type 3","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1010856","article-title":"Vimentin inhibits \u03b1-tubulin acetylation via enhancing \u03b1-TAT1 degradation to suppress the replication of human parainfluenza virus type 3","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2017.01.007","article-title":"5-hydroxytryptophan, a major product of tryptophan degradation, is essential for optimal replication of human parainfluenza virus","volume":"503","author":"Rabbani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01551-16","article-title":"Identification of interferon-stimulated gene proteins that inhibit human parainfluenza virus type 3","volume":"90","author":"Rabbani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006948","article-title":"Inclusion bodies of human parainfluenza virus type 3 inhibit antiviral stress granule formation by shielding viral RNAs","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1996.0321","article-title":"Inhibition of human parainfluenza virus-3 replication by interferon and human MxA","volume":"220","author":"Zhao","year":"1996","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.10.4823-4831.2001","article-title":"Interferon action against human parainfluenza virus type 3: Involvement of a novel antiviral pathway in the inhibition of transcription","volume":"75","author":"Choudhary","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009908","article-title":"Human parainfluenza virus type 1 regulates cholesterol biosynthesis and establishes quiescent infection in human airway cells","volume":"17","author":"Kurebayashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a021401","article-title":"The small GTPase rho: Cellular functions and signal transduction","volume":"120","author":"Narumiya","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Biochem"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2018.08.015","article-title":"The V protein of human parainfluenza virus type 2 promotes RhoA-induced filamentous actin formation.","volume":"524","author":"Ohta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virology."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2019.05.013","article-title":"Profilin2 is required for filamentous actin formation induced by human parainfluenza virus type 2","volume":"533","author":"Ohta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M004410200","article-title":"Regulation of vesicle trafficking in madin-darby canine kidney cells by Rab11a and Rab25","volume":"275","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-025-01384-z","article-title":"Peptides targeting RAB11A-FIP2 complex inhibit HPIV3, RSV, and IAV replication as broad-spectrum antivirals","volume":"15","author":"Jiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Biosci"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-018-0536-3","article-title":"Rab27a facilitates human parainfluenza virus type 2 growth by promoting cell surface transport of envelope proteins","volume":"207","author":"Ohta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med Microbiol Immunol"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2006.12.017","article-title":"The conserved carboxyl terminus of human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein plays an important role in virus growth","volume":"362","author":"Nishio","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00803","article-title":"Inhibition of Cavin3 degradation by the human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein is important for efficient viral growth","volume":"11","author":"Ohta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Microbiol"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00182.2003","article-title":"Role of claudin interactions in airway tight junctional permeability","volume":"285","author":"Coyne","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2019.01.031","article-title":"Claudin-1 inhibits human parainfluenza virus type 2 dissemination","volume":"531","author":"Yumine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01471-16","article-title":"Graf1 controls the growth of human parainfluenza virus type 2 through inactivation of RhoA signaling","volume":"90","author":"Ohta","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.11.001","article-title":"The hairpin-type tail-anchored SNARE syntaxin 17 targets to autophagosomes for fusion with endosomes\/lysosomes","volume":"151","author":"Itakura","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.15698\/cst2018.04.130","article-title":"How to use a multipurpose SNARE: The emerging role of Snap29 in cellular health","volume":"2","author":"Mastrodonato","year":"","journal-title":"Cell Stress"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2014.04.004","article-title":"Phosphoprotein of human parainfluenza virus type 3 blocks autophagosome-lysosome fusion to increase virus production","volume":"15","author":"Ding","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.08.039","article-title":"Tetherin inhibits HIV-1 release by directly tethering virions to cells","volume":"139","author":"Perez-Caballero","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0020039","article-title":"HIV-1 vpu promotes release and prevents endocytosis of nascent retrovirus particles from the plasma membrane","volume":"2","author":"Neil","year":"2006","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-017-0508-z","article-title":"Human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein inhibits induction of tetherin","volume":"206","author":"Ohta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med Microbiol Immunol"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000373","article-title":"Human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein inhibits and antagonizes tetherin","volume":"97","author":"Ohta","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2013.09.015","article-title":"Paramyxovirus activation and inhibition of innate immune responses","volume":"425","author":"Parks","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Mol Biol"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.12.7877-7882.2005","article-title":"Inhibition of STAT 1 phosphorylation by human parainfluenza virus type 3 C protein","volume":"79","author":"Malur","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2006.03.012","article-title":"Human parainfluenza virus type 1 but not sendai virus replicates in human respiratory cells despite IFN treatment","volume":"121","author":"Bousse","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virus Res"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2000.0240","article-title":"Paramyxoviridae use distinct virus-specific mechanisms to circumvent the interferon response","volume":"269","author":"Young","year":"2000","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.80263-0","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo specificity of ubiquitination and degradation of STAT1 and STAT2 by the V proteins of the paramyxoviruses simian virus 5 and human parainfluenza virus type 2","volume":"86","author":"Precious","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2002.1773","article-title":"Paramyxoviruses SV5 and HPIV2 assemble STAT protein ubiquitin ligase complexes from cellular components","volume":"304","author":"Ulane","year":"2002","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02012-10","article-title":"A tryptophan-rich motif in the human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein is critical for the blockade of toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7)- and TLR9-dependent signaling","volume":"85","author":"Kitagawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02542-10","article-title":"Identification of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (HPIV-2) V protein amino acid residues that reduce binding of V to MDA5 and attenuate HPIV-2 replication in nonhuman primates\u25bf","volume":"85","author":"Schaap-Nutt","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M710089200","article-title":"Select paramyxoviral V proteins inhibit IRF3 activation by acting as alternative substrates for inhibitor of \u03baB kinase \u03f5 (IKKe)\/TBK1","volume":"283","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.7.6.15123","article-title":"The autophagy initiating kinase ULK1 is regulated via opposing phosphorylation by AMPK and mTOR","volume":"7","author":"Egan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006877","article-title":"A new mechanism of interferon\u2019s antiviral action: Induction of autophagy, essential for paramyxovirus replication, is inhibited by the interferon stimulated gene, TDRD7","volume":"14","author":"Subramanian","year":"2018","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cwr112","article-title":"Receptor-binding specificity of the human parainfluenza virus type 1 hemagglutinin-neuraminidase glycoprotein","volume":"22","author":"Alymova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.09.014","article-title":"Inhibition of primary clinical isolates of human parainfluenza virus by DAS181 in cell culture and in a cotton rat model","volume":"100","author":"Jones","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/653621","article-title":"A recombinant sialidase fusion protein effectively inhibits human parainfluenza viral infection in vitro and in vivo","volume":"202","author":"Moscona","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1096\/fasebj.13.14.1911","article-title":"Molecular dissection of nucleolin\u2019s role in growth and cell proliferation: new insights","volume":"13","author":"Srivastava","year":"1999","journal-title":"FASEB J Off Publ Fed Am Soc Exp Biol"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.24.12446-12451.2001","article-title":"Contribution of the human parainfluenza virus type 3 HN-receptor interaction to pathogenesis in vivo","volume":"75","author":"Prince","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.67.11.6463-6468.1993","article-title":"Relative affinity of the human parainfluenza virus type 3 hemagglutinin-neuraminidase for sialic acid correlates with virus-induced fusion activity","volume":"67","author":"Moscona","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/hsz-2022-0129","article-title":"TMPRSS13 zymogen activation, surface localization, and shedding is regulated by proteolytic cleavage within the non-catalytic stem region","volume":"403","author":"Martin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol Chem"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M102633200","article-title":"Proteolytic activation of respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein. Cleavage at two furin consensus sequences","volume":"276","author":"Zimmer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0503989102","article-title":"Structure of the uncleaved ectodomain of the paramyxovirus (hPIV3) fusion protein","volume":"102","author":"Yin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI25669","article-title":"Entry of parainfluenza virus into cells as a target for interrupting childhood respiratory disease","volume":"115","author":"Moscona","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103255","article-title":"Camostat mesylate inhibits SARS-CoV-2 activation by TMPRSS2-related proteases and its metabolite GBPA exerts antiviral activity.","volume":"65","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ebiomedicine."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26146761","article-title":"C-terminal analogues of camostat retain TMPRSS2 protease inhibition: new synthetic directions for antiviral repurposing of guanidinium-based drugs in respiratory infections","volume":"26","author":"Ferrara","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.02.018","article-title":"A superhighway to virus infection","volume":"124","author":"Greber","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-024-05227-x","article-title":"The \u03b1-tubulin acetyltransferase ATAT1: Structure, cellular functions, and its emerging role in human diseases","volume":"81","author":"Iuzzolino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Mol Life Sci"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02418-08","article-title":"Class III phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase alpha and beta are novel host factor regulators of hepatitis C virus replication","volume":"83","author":"Borawski","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.00458-24","article-title":"IDO1 promotes CSFV replication by mediating tryptophan metabolism to inhibit NF-\u03baB signaling","volume":"98","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2021.11.019","article-title":"RNA circles with minimized immunogenicity as potent PKR inhibitors","volume":"82","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol Cell"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00125-20","article-title":"Subcellular localization of MxB determines its antiviral potential against influenza a virus","volume":"94","author":"Steiner","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2010.0076","article-title":"Human MxA protein: An interferon-induced dynamin-like GTPase with broad antiviral activity","volume":"31","author":"Haller","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Interferon Cytokine Res"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.251843","article-title":"Interferon-induced antiviral protein MxA interacts with the cellular RNA helicases UAP56 and URH49 *","volume":"286","author":"Wisskirchen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08972","article-title":"Structural basis of oligomerization in the stalk region of dynamin-like MxA","volume":"465","author":"Gao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2018.08.015","article-title":"The V protein of human parainfluenza virus type 2 promotes RhoA-induced filamentous actin formation","volume":"524","author":"Ohta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6271","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-61587-3","article-title":"Rab27a regulates the transport of influenza virus membrane proteins to the plasma membrane","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2728","article-title":"Rab GTPases as coordinators of vesicle traffic","volume":"10","author":"Stenmark","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0854.2005.00336.x","article-title":"Rab proteins, connecting transport and vesicle fusion","volume":"6","author":"I","year":"2005","journal-title":"Traffic (Cph Den)"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2023.188966","article-title":"Multiple functions and dual characteristics of RAB11A in cancers","volume":"1878","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) - Rev Cancer"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2133846100","article-title":"Divergent retroviral late-budding domains recruit vacuolar protein sorting factors by using alternative adaptor proteins","volume":"100","author":"Martin-Serrano","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.14.8933-8941.2005","article-title":"AIP1\/alix is a binding partner of sendai virus C protein and facilitates virus budding","volume":"79","author":"Sakaguchi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/emboj.2009.46","article-title":"SRBC\/cavin-3 is a caveolin adapter protein that regulates caveolae function","volume":"28","author":"McMahon","year":"2009","journal-title":"EMBO J"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2122","article-title":"The multiple faces of caveolae","volume":"8","author":"Parton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19336918.2016.1227910","article-title":"Involvement of rho GAP GRAF1 in maintenance of epithelial phenotype","volume":"11","author":"Regev","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Adhes Migr"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X16666180412094655","article-title":"Roles of TRAF6 in central nervous system","volume":"16","author":"Dou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4646","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-31557-0","article-title":"TRAF6 as a potential target in advanced breast cancer: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and bioinformatics validation","volume":"13","author":"Zeng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03525-12","article-title":"Human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein inhibits TRAF6-mediated ubiquitination of IRF7 to prevent TLR7- and TLR9-dependent interferon induction","volume":"87","author":"Kitagawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21197034","article-title":"Redox regulation of STAT1 and STAT3 signaling","volume":"21","author":"Butturini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0028382","article-title":"The C proteins of human parainfluenza virus type 1 block IFN signaling by binding and retaining Stat1 in perinuclear aggregates at the late endosome","volume":"7","author":"Schomacker","year":"2012","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-81-10-2341","article-title":"Interferons: cell signalling, immune modulation, antiviral response and virus countermeasures","volume":"81","author":"Goodbourn","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.5266","article-title":"STAT2-directed pathogen responses","volume":"6","author":"Bluyssen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-021-01118-z","article-title":"Human disease phenotypes associated with loss and gain of function mutations in STAT2: Viral susceptibility and type I interferonopathy","volume":"41","author":"Duncan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J ClinImmunol"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.175.5.2851","article-title":"Shared and unique functions of the DExD\/H-box helicases RIG-I, MDA5, and LGP2 in antiviral innate Immunity1","volume":"175","author":"Yoneyama","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407639101","article-title":"The V proteins of paramyxoviruses bind the IFN-inducible RNA helicase, mda-5, and inhibit its activation of the IFN-beta promoter","volume":"101","author":"Andrejeva","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.274.50.35535","article-title":"p38-dependent activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 by lipopolysaccharide","volume":"274","author":"Navarro","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.000414","article-title":"Use of the pharmacological inhibitor BX795 to study the regulation and physiological roles of TBK1 and IkappaB kinase epsilon: a distinct upstream kinase mediates ser-172 phosphorylation and activation","volume":"284","author":"Clark","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02649-13","article-title":"Beta interferon regulation of glucose metabolism is PI3K\/akt dependent and important for antiviral activity against coxsackievirus B3","volume":"88","author":"Burke","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.107698","article-title":"Viral sensing by epithelial cells involves PKR- and caspase-3-dependent generation of gasdermin E pores","volume":"26","author":"Guy","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-026-07758-2","article-title":"IDO family: the metabolic crossroads connecting immunity, nerves and tumors","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-021-00710-0","article-title":"Targeting liquid-liquid phase separation of SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein promotes innate antiviral immunity by elevating MAVS activity","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Cell Biol"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1823377\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T06:18:55Z","timestamp":1779949135000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1823377\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"references-count":99,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1823377"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1823377","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"article-number":"1823377"}}