{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T05:11:48Z","timestamp":1778735508021,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778716800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The crosstalk between cancer cells and the immune system within the tumor microenvironment (TME) governs the efficacy of immunotherapeutic interventions. However, conventional preclinical models fail to recapitulate these dynamic processes. Microphysiological systems, particularly immunocompetent tumor-on-a-chip (TOC) platforms, bridge the gap between simplified two-dimensional cultures and animal models. These devices integrate microfluidic engineering, biomimetic extracellular matrices, and controlled perfusion. These platforms effectively recapitulate the cellular heterogeneity, three-dimensional structure, and physiological flow conditions of the TME. This review examines the engineering principles of immunocompetent TOC platforms and their applications in cancer immunotherapy research. These systems enable mechanistic studies of the cancer-immunity cycle, including immune cell recruitment, migration, and tumor cell cytotoxicity. They are particularly valuable for evaluating cell-based immunotherapies, including CAR-T cells. TOC platforms also facilitate drug screening and the testing of combination therapies. They show promise for functional precision oncology when integrated with patient-derived cells. Recent advances have extended these models toward greater physiological complexity. For example, multi-organ-on-a-chip systems capture systemic interactions, while lymph node-on-a-chip platforms enable studies of immune activation, and additionally organ-specific models mimic metastatic sites. Despite their potential, challenges remain in standardization, clinical validation, and balancing complexity with experimental control. As the field addresses these limitations through collaboration and integration with advanced analytics, immunocompetent TOC platforms are poised to become essential tools for understanding cancer-immune biology and accelerating personalized immunotherapy<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1825593","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T04:30:04Z","timestamp":1778733004000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microfluidic chips for decoding cancer-immune crosstalk in immunotherapy"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Xianlei","family":"Cai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Lihuili Hospital of Ningbo University (Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital)","place":["Ningbo, Zhejiang, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xia","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Lihuili Hospital of Ningbo University (Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital)","place":["Ningbo, Zhejiang, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Congcong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Lihuili Hospital of Ningbo University (Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital)","place":["Ningbo, Zhejiang, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weiming","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Lihuili Hospital of Ningbo University (Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital)","place":["Ningbo, Zhejiang, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2025.108726","article-title":"Integrating tumor macroenvironment, microenvironment and mechanobiology with organoid and organ-on-a-chip models for lung cancer immunotherapy","volume":"207","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-023-03572-7","article-title":"Organ-on-a-chip models for development of cancer immunotherapies","volume":"72","author":"Chernyavska","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol Immunother"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.603640","article-title":"3D tumor models and their use for the testing of immunotherapies","volume":"11","author":"Boucherit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202303658","article-title":"Engineered tumor-immune microenvironment on a chip to study T cell-macrophage interaction in breast cancer progression","volume":"13","author":"Manoharan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201801198","article-title":"Ex vivo tumor-on-a-chip platforms to study intercellular interactions within the tumor microenvironment","volume":"8","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1175503","article-title":"3D cancer models: One step closer to in vitro human studies","volume":"14","author":"Manduca","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.03.076","article-title":"Engineered in vitro tumor models for cell-based immunotherapy","volume":"132","author":"Ando","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202401927","article-title":"Recapitulating the cancer-immunity cycle on a chip","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-3850-7_13","article-title":"Microfluidic 3D cytotoxic assay","volume":"2804","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Methods Mol Biol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.7150\/ntno.87818","article-title":"Knockout cancer by nano-delivered immunotherapy using perfusion-aided scaffold-based tumor-on-a-chip","volume":"8","author":"Suryavanshi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanotheranostics"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.614300","article-title":"Advances in modeling the immune microenvironment of colorectal cancer","volume":"11","author":"Yoon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/d4lc01089b","article-title":"Vascularized tumor-on-a-chip to investigate immunosuppression of CAR-T cells","volume":"25","author":"Bains","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.00388","article-title":"The biology of Malignant mesothelioma and the relevance of preclinical models","volume":"10","author":"Blanquart","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Oncol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cac2.12224","article-title":"Tumor organoids: synergistic applications, current challenges, and future prospects in cancer therapy","volume":"41","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Commun (Lond)"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202000235","article-title":"3D immunocompetent organ-on-a-chip models","volume":"4","author":"Maharjan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Small Methods"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adbi.202300077","article-title":"Microphysiological systems for cancer immunotherapy research and development","volume":"8","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv Biol (Weinh)"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-025-02845-z","article-title":"A tumor-on-a-chip for in vitro study of CAR-T cell immunotherapy in solid tumors","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat Biotechnol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c7lc00815e","article-title":"Recent advances in microfluidic technologies for cell-to-cell interaction studies","volume":"18","author":"Rothbauer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2025.104716","article-title":"Immunocompetent tumor-on-a-chip: A translational tool for drug screening and cancer therapy","volume":"210","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crit Rev Oncol Hematol"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neo.2023.100948","article-title":"Therapeutic targeting of tumor spheroids in a 3D microphysiological renal cell carcinoma-on-a-chip system","volume":"46","author":"Miller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neoplasia"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-35723-8_7","article-title":"Models for monocytic cells in the tumor microenvironment","volume":"1224","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20892\/j.issn.2095-3941.2025.0127","article-title":"Organoid models in oncology: advancing precision cancer therapy and vaccine development","volume":"22","author":"Xiao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Biol Med"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-19-0342","article-title":"An engineered tumor-on-a-chip device with breast cancer-immune cell interactions for assessing T-cell recruitment","volume":"80","author":"Aung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/d0lc00799d","article-title":"Tumor-on-a-chip platforms to study cancer-immune system crosstalk in the era of immunotherapy","volume":"21","author":"Parlato","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1155085","article-title":"The tumor stroma influences immune cell distribution and recruitment in a PDAC-on-a-chip model","volume":"14","author":"Geyer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2026.01.050","article-title":"Elevated interstitial fluid pressure promotes spheroid growth and reduces CAR-T therapeutic efficacy in solid tumors","volume":"213","author":"Alam\u00e1n-D\u00edez","year":"2026","journal-title":"Acta Biomater"},{"key":"B27","first-page":"6516","article-title":"Redefining preclinical testing: human-relevant alternatives beyond animal models","volume":"16","author":"Jang","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMB Rep"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2025.115757","article-title":"Engineering tumor spatial heterogeneity in vitro","volume":"229","author":"Chen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv Drug Delivery Rev"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2023.1250123","article-title":"Human BBB-on-a-chip reveals barrier disruption, endothelial inflammation, and T cell migration under neuroinflammatory conditions","volume":"16","author":"Nair","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Mol Neurosci"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201903367","article-title":"Biomaterials as tools to decode immunity","volume":"32","author":"Eppler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv Mater"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.71761","article-title":"Evaluation of cancer immunotherapy using mini-tumor chips","volume":"12","author":"Ao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202201784","article-title":"New strategy for promoting vascularization in tumor spheroids in a microfluidic assay","volume":"12","author":"Wan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06593-1","article-title":"Patient-derived esophageal adenocarcinoma organ chip: a physiologically relevant platform for functional precision oncology","volume":"23","author":"Pal","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202402946","article-title":"Immune-infiltrated cancer spheroid model with vascular recirculation reveals temporally dependent and tissue-specific macrophage recruitment","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1118624","article-title":"Vascular inflammation on a chip: a scalable platform for trans-endothelial electrical resistance and immune cell migration","volume":"14","author":"Ehlers","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2024.1359451","article-title":"Organ-on-a-chip for studying immune cell adhesion to liver sinusoidal endothelial cells: the potential for testing immunotherapies and cell therapy trafficking","volume":"12","author":"Kennedy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Cell Dev Biol"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.07.09.662476","article-title":"Evaluation of natural killer cell tumor homing and effector function in response to CDK4\/6 and AURKA inhibition in a melanoma tumor-on-a-chip platform","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2025"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-025-01428-2","article-title":"Bioengineered immunocompetent preclinical trial-on-chip tool enables screening of CAR T cell therapy for leukaemia","volume":"9","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat BioMed Eng"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioactmat.2026.01.003","article-title":"Multimodal profiling of CAR T cells against glioblastoma using a microengineered 3D tumor-on-a-chip model","volume":"59","author":"Ravi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Bioact Mater"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115247","article-title":"A digital nanoplasmonic microarray immunosensor for multiplexed cytokine monitoring during CAR T-cell therapy from a leukemia tumor microenvironment model","volume":"230","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens Bioelectron"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adbi.202400735","article-title":"Tumor immune engineering: developing in vitro assays to understand the tumor-immune crosstalk","volume":"9","author":"Iyer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv Biol (Weinh)"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.837261","article-title":"An in silico model of T cell infiltration dynamics based on an advanced in vitro system to enhance preclinical decision making in cancer immunotherapy","volume":"13","author":"Lewin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.06.18.660473","article-title":"Fibroblasts drive differential response in immunotherapy via IL-6 in bioengineered 3D cancer constructs","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2025"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abc2331","article-title":"Microfluidic tumor-on-a-chip model to evaluate the role of tumor environmental stress on NK cell exhaustion","volume":"7","author":"Ayuso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1704404","article-title":"Perspective: IL-15 cytokine-armored NK cells as ready-to-use immunotherapy for diverse Malignancies: therapeutic potential and toxicity risks","volume":"16","author":"Baughan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1601773","article-title":"Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in cancer immunotherapy: from chemotactic recruitment to translational modeling","volume":"16","author":"Kraja","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.835762","article-title":"Cancer therapy with TCR-engineered T cells: current strategies, challenges, and prospects","volume":"13","author":"Shafer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-025-01997-4","article-title":"Dynamic 3D microfluidic platform for exploring combined targeted therapy, chemotherapy, and virotherapy delivery in ovarian cancer","author":"Kuryk","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Delivery Transl Res"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1237565","article-title":"The challenge of making the right choice: patient avatars in the era of cancer immunotherapies","volume":"14","author":"Kayser","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/d4bm01273a","article-title":"Microfluidic organ-on-a-chip models for the gut-liver axis: from structural mimicry to functional insights","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomater Sci"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2021.824825","article-title":"A multi-organ-on-chip approach to investigate how oral exposure to metals can cause systemic toxicity leading to Langerhans cell activation in skin","volume":"3","author":"Koning","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Toxicol"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-025-03072-x","article-title":"Cancer metastasis: therapeutic challenges and opportunities","volume":"42","author":"Garemilla","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med Oncol"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2023.100773","article-title":"Engineering choroid plexus-on-a-chip with oscillatory flow for modeling brain metastasis","volume":"22","author":"Lim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater Today Bio"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16050666","article-title":"Lymph node-on-chip technology: cutting-edge advances in immune microenvironment simulation","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12050464","article-title":"Multi-compartment 3D-cultured organ-on-a-chip: towards a biomimetic lymph node for drug development","volume":"12","author":"Shanti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202411361","article-title":"A microfluidic blood brain barrier model to study the influence of glioblastoma tumor cells on BBB function","volume":"21","author":"DePalma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2025.114257","article-title":"Generation of a perfusable three-dimensional human neurovascular chip to model brain drug delivery and immune cell extravasation","volume":"387","author":"Qiu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202100197","article-title":"An in silico glioblastoma microenvironment model dissects the immunological mechanisms of resistance to PD-1 checkpoint blockade immunotherapy","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Small Methods"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3779\/j.issn.1009-3419.2025.101.16","article-title":"Application and progress of organoid-on-a-chip platforms in lung cancer diagnosis and therapy","volume":"28","author":"Yun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Zhongguo Fei Ai Za Zhi"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06824-5","article-title":"Innovative organ-on-a-chip platforms for exploring tumorigenesis and therapy in head and neck cancer","volume":"23","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"041505","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0282002","article-title":"Microfluidic lung cancer models: bridging clinical treatment strategies and tumor microenvironment recapitulation","volume":"9","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"APL Bioeng"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-025-08928-6","article-title":"Targeted cellular depletion in an immune-liver-on-a-chip platform elucidates cell-type-specific heterogeneity in drug-induced hepatotoxicity","volume":"8","author":"Yuan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Commun Biol"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1743806","article-title":"Microfluidic engineering of immune-competent organs-on-chips and their applications","volume":"17","author":"Liang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202304569","article-title":"Biofabrication directions in recapitulating the immune system-on-a-chip","volume":"14","author":"Janssen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1186\/s13036-025-00570-4","article-title":"Human preclinical multiple myeloma in vitro models for disease modeling and therapy screening","volume":"19","author":"Ybarra","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Biol Eng"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1639763","article-title":"Small non-coding RNAs: key regulatory factors and potential therapeutic targets in tumor immunity","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-25-00610","article-title":"Multi-omics technologies: novel tools and methods for assessing nerve injury and regeneration","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neural Regener Res"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crmeth.2022.100256","article-title":"Miniaturized and multiplexed high-content screening of drug and immune sensitivity in a multichambered microwell chip","volume":"2","author":"Sandstr\u00f6m","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep Methods"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1825593\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T04:30:08Z","timestamp":1778733008000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1825593\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"references-count":68,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1825593"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1825593","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"article-number":"1825593"}}