{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T22:52:50Z","timestamp":1788562370158,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis (DCL), caused by\n                    <jats:italic>Leishmania mexicana<\/jats:italic>\n                    , is a chronic, treatment-refractory form of leishmaniasis characterized by multiple nodular lesions and high parasite load. During chronic infection, T cells acquire an exhausted immune state marked by elevated expression of PD-1 and comprise progenitor-like (CXCR5\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    TIM-3\n                    <jats:sup>-<\/jats:sup>\n                    ), intermediate (CXCR5\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    TIM-3\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    ), and terminally-differentiated (CXCR5\n                    <jats:sup>-<\/jats:sup>\n                    TIM-3\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    ) exhausted T-cell (Tex) subsets. It remains unknown whether anti-PD-1 immune checkpoint therapy is effective during chronic\n                    <jats:italic>L. mexicana<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection and how it affects the Tex landscape. To address this, C57BL\/6 mice chronically infected with\n                    <jats:italic>L. mexicana<\/jats:italic>\n                    were treated from day 45 post-infection with a variable-dose anti-PD-1 mAb regimen consisting of three 250 \u03bcg\/dose induction doses followed by five 100 \u03bcg\/dose maintenance doses. Anti-PD-1 immunotherapy limited lesion progression and reduced parasite burden in chronically infected mice. This effect was associated with enhanced antigen-specific Th1 immune response and functional reinvigoration of CD8\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    and CD4\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    T cells in draining lymph nodes, as evidenced by increased expression of CD69, Ki-67, IFN-\u03b3, and GrzmB. Consistent with these findings, confocal microscopy analysis of footpad lesions revealed increased IFN-\u03b3- and TNF-\u03b1-co-producing T cells. This study provides the first evidence that PD-1 blockade enhanced PD-1\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    CXCR5\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    and PD-1\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    TIM-3\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    Tex cells within lesion sites of\n                    <jats:italic>L. mexicana<\/jats:italic>\n                    -infected mice. In draining lymph nodes, anti-PD-1 treatment expanded progenitor-like CXCR5\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    TIM-3\n                    <jats:sup>-<\/jats:sup>\n                    Tex cells in both CD4\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    and CD8\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    T-cell compartments, as well as intermediate CXCR5\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    TIM-3\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    Tex cells within the CD8\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    T-cell compartment. Overall, these findings demonstrate that anti-PD-1 immunotherapy improves clinical and parasitological outcomes during chronic\n                    <jats:italic>L. mexicana<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection in association with enhanced Th1-type immunity and remodeling of the exhausted T-cell compartment, supporting further investigation of PD-1\/PD-L1 checkpoint blockade as a potential immunotherapeutic strategy for DCL.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1827753","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T04:26:27Z","timestamp":1782707187000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Immunotherapeutic potential of PD-1 blockade in chronic Leishmania mexicana infection through the enhancement of progenitor-like CXCR5+ and intermediate CXCR5+TIM-3+ exhausted T 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Inmunoqu\u00edmica, Hospital de Especialidades, Centro M\u00e9dico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social","place":["Ciudad de M\u00e9xico, Mexico"]},{"name":"Coordinaci\u00f3n de Investigaci\u00f3n en Salud, Centro M\u00e9dico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social","place":["Ciudad de M\u00e9xico, Mexico"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaime","family":"Zamora-Chimal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Investigaci\u00f3n en Medicina Experimental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico","place":["Ciudad de M\u00e9xico, Mexico"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ingeborg","family":"Becker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Investigaci\u00f3n en Medicina Experimental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico","place":["Ciudad de M\u00e9xico, 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