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Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important mediators of intercellular communication in hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. EVs released from infected hepatocytes can carry viral nucleic acids, proteins, and regulatory non-coding RNAs to immune and nonimmune cells, thereby influencing viral dissemination, immune regulation, and disease progression. In particular, EV-associated cargos modulate antiviral immunity by affecting interferon signaling, natural killer cell function, cytokine production, immune checkpoint pathways, and T-cell exhaustion. These effects may promote viral persistence and immune evasion, although some EV populations can also enhance innate antiviral responses, indicating context-dependent dual roles. EVs also contribute to fibrosis and hepatocarcinogenesis by regulating hepatic stellate cell activation, inflammatory signaling, and tumor microenvironment remodeling. In addition, EV-derived RNAs and proteins show potential as noninvasive biomarkers and therapeutic targets. 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