{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T04:55:24Z","timestamp":1781585724574,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Pregnancy induces significant immunological adaptation, including shifts in the balance between B effector and B regulatory cells. However, the impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination on B cell populations during pregnancy remains largely unexplored.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Blood samples were collected from 139 women prior delivery and grouped according to the questionnaire responses and serology: controls (uninfected\/unvaccinated); previously infected only; vaccinated only; both vaccinated and infected; and acutely SARS-CoV-2 infected (unvaccinated or vaccinated). Maternal serum cytokine levels were determined, and B cell populations were analyzed by flow cytometry following short- and long-term stimulation with CpG \u00b1 CD40L and PMA\/ionomycin or.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Serum levels of APRIL, IL-4, IL-6, TNF-\u03b1 and sCD40L varied according to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and infection status. Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2, and to a lesser extent infection with the virus, altered the frequency of various B cell populations, including plasma blasts, plasma cells and B memory cells. Patients infected with the virus exhibited increased levels of IL-10+ B cells, and decreased levels of IL-6+ B cells, in comparison to vaccinated women. In addition, the expression of CD40 was induced in B cells in response to infection. Conversely, the expression of PD-1, FasL and CD86 was enhanced by vaccination.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination during pregnancy considerably shift the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory B cell populations, and modified expression of costimulatory molecules. This highlights the need for further investigation into the long-term consequences of maternal SARS-CoV-2 immunity for both mothers and offspring.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1849532","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T04:28:50Z","timestamp":1781584130000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Detailed investigation of B cell populations following vaccination and infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 during pregnancy"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Laura","family":"Scholz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University","place":["Magdeburg, Germany"]},{"name":"University Hospital for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University","place":["Magdeburg, 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