{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T04:50:15Z","timestamp":1782190215670,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782172800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The aim of this study is to construct a deep learning-based prediction model to accurately predict the risk of autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT) in patients with connective tissue disease (CTD) using whole section images (WSI) of labial gland pathological tissue.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This was a retrospective study. The labial gland pathological sections of total 121 CTD patients were collected. According to the results of thyroid autoantibodies, including thyroglobulin antibody (TgAb) and thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb), the patients were divided into positive group (Ab+ Group) and negative group (Ab- Group). The pre-trained model EfficientNet-B5 was used to extract image features, and combined with multi-instance learning and ensemble learning techniques, the high-risk prediction model for CTD patients with AIT was constructed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Result<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The integrated model showed excellent prediction performance in both the internal validation set and the external validation set, with the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.829. At the same time, the model can effectively identify the key pathological features of labial gland tissues related to the high risk of AIT in CTD patients.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study confirmed that the prediction model of labial gland WSI based on deep learning had good efficacy in evaluating the risk of AIT in CTD patients, which provided a new technical support and theoretical basis for early clinical identification of high-risk groups and optimization of diagnosis and treatment decisions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1861419","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T04:33:42Z","timestamp":1782189222000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Labial-gland artificial intelligence model screening for autoimmune thyroiditis among patients with connective tissue disease"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jia-yun","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuening","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiao-min","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wen-qi","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ru-yi","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhi-yang","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart Healthcare Research Institute, Xunfei Healthcare Technology Co. Ltd","place":["Hefei, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu-ling","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ya","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fan-xuan","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing-yu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zheng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen, University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart Healthcare Research Institute, Xunfei Healthcare Technology Co. Ltd","place":["Hefei, China"]},{"name":"Pazhou Lab","place":["Guangzhou, China"]},{"name":"University of Electronic Science and Technology of China","place":["Chengdu, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"Lv","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-014-0479-7","article-title":"Rheumatic symptoms in autoimmune thyroiditis","volume":"17","author":"Tagoe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr Rheumatol Rep"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kes423","article-title":"High prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in subjects with sicca symptoms without Sjogren's syndrome","volume":"52","author":"Milic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rheumatol (Oxford)"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s100670050009","article-title":"Autoimmune thyroid diseases in patients with undifferentiated connective tissue disease","volume":"19","author":"Danieli","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin Rheumatol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-024-03469-5","article-title":"Predicting autoimmune thyroiditis in primary Sjogren's syndrome patients using a random forest classifier: a retrospective study","volume":"27","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arthritis Res Ther"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-007-0638-6","article-title":"Thyroid disease in Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome","volume":"26","author":"Jara","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin Rheumatol"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/rhu.0b013e31819dbe4c","article-title":"Prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"15","author":"Appenzeller","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Clin Rheumatol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2006.055103","article-title":"Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with a diagnosis of secondary Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome in familial systemic lupus","volume":"66","author":"Scofield","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2012.05.014","article-title":"B cells in Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome: from pathophysiology to diagnosis and treatment","volume":"39","author":"Cornec","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Autoimmun"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39859","article-title":"2016 American College of Rheumatology\/European League Against Rheumatism classification criteria for primary Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome: A consensus and data-driven methodology involving three international patient cohorts","volume":"76","author":"Shiboski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.61.6.554","article-title":"Classification criteria for Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome: a revised version of the European criteria proposed by the American-European Consensus Group","volume":"61","author":"Vitali","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"B11","first-page":"97","article-title":"Systemic manifestations of primary Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome out of the ESSDAI classification: prevalence and clinical relevance in a large international, multi-ethnic cohort of patients","author":"Retamozo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Exp Rheumatol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-023-03191-8","article-title":"Assessing clusters of comorbidities in rheumatoid arthritis: a machine learning approach","volume":"25","author":"Solomon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arthritis Res Ther"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/15330338251380966","article-title":"EfficientNetSwift: A lightweight and precise deep learning model for detecting oral squamous cell carcinoma using pathological images","volume":"24","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Technol Cancer Res Treat"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmedinf.2025.106024","article-title":"IBDAIM: Artificial intelligence for analyzing intestinal biopsies pathological images for assisted integrated diagnostic of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"203","author":"Cai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Med Inf"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40744-022-00475-4","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in rheumatoid arthritis: current status and future perspectives: a state-of-the-art review","volume":"9","author":"Momtazmanesh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rheumatol Ther"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-025-07518-5","article-title":"Artificial intelligence-based prediction of organ involvement in Sjogren's syndrome using labial gland biopsy whole-slide images","volume":"44","author":"Ren","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin Rheumatol"},{"key":"B17","volume-title":"Hashimoto thyroiditis","author":"Kaur","year":"2025"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2012.0554","article-title":"Hashimoto's thyroiditis: celebrating the centennial through the lens of the Johns Hopkins hospital surgical pathology records","volume":"23","author":"Caturegli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28388","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-79610-w","article-title":"Comparative efficacy of anteroposterior and lateral X-ray based deep learning in the detection of osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245992","article-title":"Application of deep learning algorithm to detect and visualize vertebral fractures on plain frontal radiographs","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gie.2023.11.059","article-title":"Deep learning-based lesion detection and severity grading of small-bowel Crohn's disease ulcers on double-balloon endoscopy images","volume":"99","author":"Xie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gastrointest Endosc"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169283","article-title":"The prevalence, incidence and natural course of positive antithyroperoxidase antibodies in a population-based study: Tehran Thyroid Study","volume":"12","author":"Amouzegar","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B23","article-title":"Clinical and prognostic characteristics of 573 cases of primary Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome","volume":"123","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin Med J (Engl)"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/1573397118666220127105546","article-title":"Autoimmune thyroid disease in primary Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome: real-life screening practice and clinical outcomes","volume":"18","author":"Gir\u00f3n-P\u00efllado","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Rheumatol Rev"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/ey.20.1.11","article-title":"Incidence, prevalence, and co-occurrence of autoimmune disorders over time and by age, sex, and socioeconomic status: a population-based cohort study of 22 million individuals in the UK","volume":"401","author":"Conrad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"864907","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/864907","article-title":"Autoimmune thyroid disease in rheumatoid arthritis: a global perspective","volume":"2012","author":"C\u00e1rdenas Rold\u00e1n","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arthritis"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1695508","article-title":"Hashimoto's thyroiditis reduces central lymph node metastasis risk in papillary thyroid microcarcinoma: an integrated meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Zhong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.87.7.8678","article-title":"Prospective study of the spontaneous course of subclinical hypothyroidism: prognostic value of thyrotropin, thyroid reserve, and thyroid antibodies","volume":"87","author":"Huber","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rdc.2016.03.005","article-title":"Polyautoimmunity in sj\u00f6gren syndrome","volume":"42","author":"Anaya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rheum Dis Clin North Am"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/rhu.0000000000001574","article-title":"Frequency of polyautoimmunity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"28","author":"Ordo\u00f1ez-Ca\u00f1izares","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Rheumatol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2017.00138","article-title":"Systemic lupus erythematosus and thyroid autoimmunity","volume":"8","author":"Ferrari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.28062","article-title":"Increased threat of thyroid diseases in patients with Sjogren\u2019s syndrome: a systematic review","volume":"14","author":"Kaur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-1568","article-title":"Innate immune activation and thyroid autoimmunity","volume":"96","author":"Kawashima","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00521","article-title":"Thyroid autoimmunity: role of anti-thyroid antibodies in thyroid and extra-thyroidal diseases","volume":"8","author":"Fr\u00f6hlich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-020-01477-1","article-title":"An update on the pathogenesis of Hashimoto's thyroiditis","volume":"44","author":"Weetman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Endocrinol Invest"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.684999","article-title":"The multiple roles of B cells in the pathogenesis of Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome","volume":"12","author":"Du","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1861419\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T04:33:49Z","timestamp":1782189229000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1861419\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]]},"references-count":36,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1861419"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1861419","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]]},"article-number":"1861419"}}