{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T06:27:42Z","timestamp":1786429662394,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786406400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Atopic dermatitis (AD), a chronic inflammatory skin disorder, represents a significant global health challenge. Although probiotic therapy shows potential for skin disease management, the application of live bacteria remains associated with multiple limitations. Bacterial extracellular vesicles (EVs) may provide a safer and more effective alternative.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In this study, EVs derived from\n                      <jats:italic>Lactobacillus plantarum<\/jats:italic>\n                      were isolated and characterized. Their therapeutic potential against AD was evaluated through\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      experiments. HaCaT keratinocytes were used to establish an AD-like cellular model, and an AD mouse model was induced using 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB). The effects of\n                      <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic>\n                      EVs on skin barrier function, inflammatory responses, and scratching behaviors were evaluated. Multi-omics analysis was performed to explore the potential bioactive components within EVs underlying their therapeutic effects.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>In vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic>\n                      EVs were efficiently internalized by HaCaT keratinocytes, significantly increasing ceramide levels and upregulating key barrier-related genes, including filaggrin (FLG), desmoglein-1 (DSG1), and ceramide synthase 3 (CerS3), thereby enhancing skin barrier function in the AD-like cell model. Meanwhile, EVs treatment downregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines, including thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), interleukin-25 (IL-25), interleukin-33 (IL-33), and tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 (TNF-\u03b1). In the DNFB-induced AD mouse model, EVs administration markedly alleviated clinical symptoms, reduced lesion scores and transepidermal water loss, and restored epidermal thickness to near-normal levels, indicating barrier repair in AD mice. Skin tissue analysis further confirmed reduced inflammatory cytokine expression. Additionally, EVs suppressed scratching behaviors by inhibiting the IL-31 pathway. Multi-omics analysis suggested that the therapeutic effects of\n                      <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic>\n                      EVs may be associated with lipid-based bioactive components within EVs.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings indicate that bacterial EVs represent a promising probiotic-inspired strategy for AD treatment and provide new insights into the development of safe and effective dermatological therapies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1873193","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T05:34:50Z","timestamp":1786426490000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Extracellular vesicles from Lactobacillus plantarum alleviate 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