{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T06:25:12Z","timestamp":1787034312926,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic>\n                      remains amongst the most globally important pathogens implicated in severe clinical manifestations. The progressive rise in multidrug-resistant strains highlights the urgent need for new vaccines. Therefore, this study was designed to develop a new multi-epitope vaccine containing the most conserved epitopes across\n                      <jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic>\n                      pathotypes. Consequently, the study aimed to investigate the immunoadjuvant role of faecal microbiota transplantation in enhancing vaccine efficacy.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Eighteen of the most conserved B-cell and T-cell epitopes of FimH, LptD, and BamA proteins were selected and included in a single construct. During the epitope selection process, HLA alleles predominant in the Iraqi population, as reported in previous studies, were used as criteria for selecting T-cell epitopes. The chimeric protein was expressed in BL21\n                      <jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic>\n                      and purified using affinity chromatography. Vaccine cross-protective immunity and protection were tested in\n                      <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      experiments. Different formulations were used in the experimental evaluation: three doses of 100 \u03bcg of purified chimeric protein, injected intraperitoneally alone or encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles, after faecal microbiota transplantation with and without gut microbiota modulation mediated by a cocktail of antibiotics. IgG1, IL-4, INF-\u03b3, and NLRP3 levels were measured at 30 and 75 days after the first immunisation dose. Immunised mice were challenged with the local B2 UPEC phylogroup, and protection efficacy was considered 48\u00a0h later. Finally, the histological effects of the different chimeric protein formulations on the liver were assessed.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>All vaccine formulations except those after faecal microbiota transplantation without gut microbiota modulation induce significant increases in IgG1, IL-4, and INF-\u03b3 levels at different times. Only vaccination after faecal microbiota transplantation with gut microbiota modulation elicited robust NLRP3 levels at 30 and 75 days after, and this was linked to the highest reduction in bladder bacterial load by 813-fold compared to the other formulations, as well as the mildest effect on liver histological changes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These results demonstrated that the chimeric vaccine provides preliminary protection against a local B2 UPEC isolate. Furthermore, modulating gut microbiota via faecal transplantation markedly enhances the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of vaccination, suggesting its adjuvanticity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1875830","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:36:26Z","timestamp":1787031386000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Chimeric vaccine based on Iraqi HLA alleles against a predominant local Escherichia coli phylogroup"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Aziz Tamo","family":"Koro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Mosul","place":["Mosul, Iraq"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiyam Adil","family":"Altaii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, 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