{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T06:04:16Z","timestamp":1789365856660,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To examine the associations of nasal microbiota with disease-modifying therapies (DMTs), lymphocyte subsets and olfactory function in multiple sclerosis (MS).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Thirty patients with MS and 30 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HCs) were enrolled. Patients were classified as DMT-treated (MS[DMT+]) or untreated (MS[DMT-]). Olfactory function was assessed using the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT). Lymphocyte subsets were measured by flow cytometry, and nasal microbiota were analysed by 16S rRNA sequencing.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Olfactory function was lower in MS than in HCs, and better in MS(DMTs+) than in MS(DMTs\u2212) (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.016, 95% CI 0.5614 to 4.941). NK cell counts were lower in MS(DMTs+) than in MS(DMTs\u2212) (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.049, 95% CI -244.7 to -0.2109). And NK cell counts in MS(DMTs+) correlate with UPSIT (\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      =-0.527,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.029). Compared with HCs, MS(DMTs\u2212) showed higher Shannon diversity (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.038), increased\n                      <jats:italic>Proteobacteria<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.004), reduced\n                      <jats:italic>Moraxellaceae<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.037) and\n                      <jats:italic>Enterobacteriaceae<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.033), and enriched branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.026). In MS(DMTs+),\n                      <jats:italic>Campylobacter, Anaerococcus, Peptoniphilus, Prevotella<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>Finegoldia<\/jats:italic>\n                      were positively correlated with circulating NK cells (all\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &amp;lt;0.05).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>DMTs may improve olfactory function in MS, possibly through modulation of circulating NK cell-associated immune status and nasal microbiota, in addition to controlling disease-related inflammation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1889149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T05:38:52Z","timestamp":1789364332000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Disease-modifying therapies are associated with improved olfactory function via NK cell- microbiota interactions in multiple sclerosis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Zhuoma","family":"Danzhen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guizhou Medical University","place":["Guiyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guizhou Medical University","place":["Guiyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lan","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Amcare Hospital, Jingshun Road","place":["Chaoyang District, Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zidan","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guizhou Medical University","place":["Guiyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41418-025-01576-7","article-title":"Cell death in multiple sclerosis","volume":"33","author":"Guan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Death Diff"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01473-3","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis","volume":"403","author":"Jakimovski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet (Lond England)"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abi4632","article-title":"Proinflammatory CD20+ T cells contribute to CNS-directed autoimmunity","volume":"14","author":"Ochs","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.26858","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of multiple sclerosis: A review","volume":"325","author":"McGinley","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-020-00950-2","article-title":"The pharmacogenetics of rituximab: Potential implications for anti-CD20 therapies in multiple sclerosis","volume":"17","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurother J Am Soc For Exp Neurother"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1249168","article-title":"Humans can discriminate more than 1 trillion olfactory stimuli","volume":"343","author":"Bushdid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci (New York NY)"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0266492","article-title":"Olfactory dysfunction in patients with multiple sclerosis; 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