{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T06:03:38Z","timestamp":1784527418754,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"\n Background<\/jats:title>\n \n Inactivated\n Pasteurella multocida<\/jats:italic>\n (Pm) vaccines are safe and practical for veterinary use, but their protection is often limited by weak cellular immune activation and insufficient durability of antibody responses. This study investigated whether a tea saponin\u2013soybean oil submicron emulsion could improve the durability, breadth and protective efficacy of immune responses induced by an inactivated\n P. multocida<\/jats:italic>\n vaccine.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n \n Inactivated\n P. multocida<\/jats:italic>\n antigen was formulated with tea saponin and soybean oil to generate TS-Pm. The formulation was characterized by particle size, polydispersity, surface charge, morphology and storage stability. Macrophage antigen uptake, cytokine secretion and activation-associated surface markers were examined\n in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n . In mice, we evaluated antibody persistence, B-cell differentiation, splenic cellular immunity, pulmonary CD11b\n +<\/jats:sup>\n myeloid phenotypes, systemic tolerability, protection after lethal challenge and draining lymph-node proteomic profiles.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n TS-Pm formed a stable oil-in-water submicron emulsion of approximately 300 nm with low polydispersity, negative surface charge and preserved morphology after 6 months at 4\u00a0\u00b0C. In RAW264.7 macrophages, TS-Pm increased antigen uptake, pro-inflammatory cytokine production and CD80, CD86 and MHC-II expression. Compared with alum-adjuvanted vaccine, TS-Pm maintained higher Pm-specific IgG responses, increased both IgG1 and IgG2a, and promoted plasmablast, plasma cell and germinal-center-associated B-cell responses. TS-Pm also enhanced antigen-responsive splenic proliferation, cytokine-producing CD4\n +<\/jats:sup>\n and CD8\n +<\/jats:sup>\n T-cell subsets, and activation-associated phenotypes in pulmonary CD11b\n +<\/jats:sup>\n myeloid cells. After lethal challenge, TS-Pm improved survival to 90%, compared with 60% for Alum-Pm, and reduced pulmonary bacterial burden and lung pathology without evidence of aggravated systemic injury. Draining lymph-node proteomics showed changes associated with antigen processing and presentation, NF-\u03baB-related signaling and immune-cell trafficking.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n \n Tea saponin\u2013soybean oil submicron emulsion improved the durability, breadth and protective efficacy of immune responses induced by an inactivated\n P. multocida<\/jats:italic>\n vaccine. These findings identify TS-Pm as a practical plant-derived adjuvant formulation for inactivated bacterial vaccines requiring sustained humoral and cellular immunity.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1899202","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T05:35:07Z","timestamp":1784525707000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Tea saponin\u2013soybean oil submicron emulsion promotes durable protective immunity against Pasteurella multocida"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Xuemei","family":"Cui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences","place":["Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Le","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal 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