{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,11]],"date-time":"2026-11-11T15:46:40Z","timestamp":1794412000741,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788739200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Immune cell-derived exosomes are important mediators of intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment. Their biological effects are influenced by the immune-cell source and activation state, vesicular cargo, recipient-cell type, and tumor context. This review examines immune cell-derived exosomes as bidirectional regulators of cancer-associated signaling, with emphasis on their antitumor and protumor mechanisms rather than classification by parent cell type alone. Antitumor exosomes can enhance antigen presentation, activate natural killer cell and T-cell responses, reprogram tumor-associated macrophages, reduce immune-checkpoint signaling, induce tumor-cell death, and suppress tumor growth and metastasis. Conversely, exosomes released by regulatory T cells (Tregs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and other immune populations may promote immune suppression, tolerogenic reprogramming, checkpoint-mediated immune escape, invasion, metastasis, and treatment resistance. These effects are mediated through the transfer of proteins, receptors, enzymes, cytokine-related molecules, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and other regulatory cargo that modulate signaling networks such as NF-\u03baB, MAPK\/ERK, PI3K-AKT-mTOR, STAT3, PD-1\/PD-L1, apoptotic, and \u03b2-catenin\/HIF-1\u03b1-associated pathways. Despite their therapeutic and diagnostic potential, clinical translation remains limited by extracellular-vesicle heterogeneity, incomplete identification of functional cargo, inconsistent isolation and characterization methods, manufacturing challenges, storage instability, and difficulties in tracking vesicles\n                    <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Future studies should aim to define the relationships among parent-cell state, exosomal cargo, recipient-cell identity, and downstream biological responses. Additionally, integrating experimental data with computational and artificial-intelligence-based approaches may support single-vesicle classification, inference of EV cellular origin, and the development of more reproducible exosome-based cancer therapies.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1937923","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T13:14:31Z","timestamp":1788786871000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Immune cell-derived exosomes in cancer: double-edged mechanisms of antitumor immunity and tumor progression"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Maryam","family":"Firouzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Campus","place":["Oklahoma City, OK, United 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