{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T10:08:55Z","timestamp":1789034935225,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The oral\u2013lung axis describes microbial and inflammatory exchange between the oral cavity and the lower respiratory tract. Its relevance to lung cancer is supported by the detection of oral-associated taxa in lower-airway samples, epidemiological links between periodontal disease and lung cancer risk, and experimental evidence that microbial signals can modify epithelial proliferation and antitumor immunity. This review integrates epidemiological, ecological, mechanistic, and translational evidence while distinguishing oral-associated or source-linked observations from pulmonary and intratumoral mechanisms in which oral origin has not been demonstrated. Particular attention is given to repeated microaspiration, Th17\/IL-17 inflammation, NOD2\/NF-\u03baB and PI3K\/ERK signaling, microbial metabolites, and remodeling of the tumor immune microenvironment. Recent studies of pulmonary nodules, radiotherapy, and immune checkpoint inhibition extend this field from disease association to clinically testable questions. The available evidence is most consistent with context-dependent tumor promotion and treatment-response modulation, rather than independent microbial initiation of human lung cancer. We conclude by defining the source-tracking, analytical, prospective, and interventional studies needed to establish causality and clinical utility.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1939497","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T09:21:25Z","timestamp":1789032085000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The oral\u2013lung axis in lung cancer: microbial translocation, immune reprogramming, and clinical implications"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Xiangliang","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University","place":["Changchun, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guanran","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University","place":["Changchun, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jin","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University","place":["Changchun, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University","place":["Changchun, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University","place":["Changchun, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University","place":["Changchun, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiuwei","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University","place":["Changchun, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21834","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21820","article-title":"Cancer statistics, 2024","volume":"74","author":"Siegel","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc2190","article-title":"Lung cancer in never smokers--a different disease","volume":"7","author":"Sun","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cancer"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008578","article-title":"Disordered microbial communities in asthmatic airways","volume":"5","author":"Hilty","year":"2010","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0016384","article-title":"Analysis of the lung microbiome in the \"healthy\" smoker and in COPD","volume":"6","author":"Erb-Downward","year":"2011","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00821-x","article-title":"The dynamic lung microbiome in health and disease","volume":"21","author":"Natalini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/2049-2618-1-19","article-title":"Enrichment of lung microbiome with supraglottic taxa is associated with increased pulmonary inflammation","volume":"1","author":"Segal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00037-15","article-title":"Analysis of the upper respiratory tract microbiotas as the source of the lung and gastric microbiotas in healthy individuals","volume":"6","author":"Bassis","year":"2015","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1513\/annalsats.201501-029oc","article-title":"Spatial variation in the healthy human lung microbiome and the adapted island model of lung biogeography","volume":"12","author":"Dickson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12301","article-title":"Oral-lung microbiome interactions in lung diseases","volume":"83","author":"Mammen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Periodontol 2000"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4187\/respcare.07332","article-title":"The oral-lung axis: the impact of oral health on lung health","volume":"65","author":"Gaeckle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respir Care"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.111.5.1266","article-title":"Quantitative aspiration during sleep in normal subjects","volume":"111","author":"Gleeson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3785","article-title":"Periodontitis: from microbial immune subversion to systemic inflammation","volume":"15","author":"Hajishengallis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201344202","article-title":"Breaking bad: manipulation of the host response by Porphyromonas gingivalis","volume":"44","author":"Hajishengallis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur J Immunol"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2021.718222","article-title":"Relationships between oral microecosystem and respiratory diseases","volume":"8","author":"Dong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Mol Biosci"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2016.37","article-title":"Cigarette smoking and the oral microbiome in a large study of American adults","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISME J"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201210-1913oc","article-title":"Comparison of the respiratory microbiome in healthy nonsmokers and smokers","volume":"187","author":"Morris","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1158\/1940-6207.capr-21-0601","article-title":"Saliva and lung microbiome associations with electronic cigarette use and smoking","volume":"15","author":"Ying","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Prev Res (Phila)"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201710-2118oc","article-title":"Airway microbiota is associated with upregulation of the PI3K pathway in lung cancer","volume":"198","author":"Tsay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.cd-20-0263","article-title":"Lower airway dysbiosis affects lung cancer progression","volume":"11","author":"Tsay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Discov"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16031","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2016.31","article-title":"Enrichment of the lung microbiome with oral taxa is associated with lung inflammation of a Th17 phenotype","volume":"1","author":"Segal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Microbiol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2016.10.016","article-title":"Characterization of microbiome in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with lung cancer comparing with benign mass like lesions","volume":"102","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.31098","article-title":"Difference of lower airway microbiome in bilateral protected specimen brush between lung cancer patients with unilateral lobar masses and control subjects","volume":"142","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Cancer"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01722-y","article-title":"Lung microbiome: new insights into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.142","article-title":"Emerging pathogenic links between microbiota and the gut-lung axis","volume":"15","author":"Budden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranon.2025.102557","article-title":"Exploring the role of the oral microbiome in saliva, sputum, bronchoalveolar fluid, and lung cancer tumor tissue: A systematic review","volume":"62","author":"Kwiatkowska","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transl Oncol"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s41698-020-00138-z","article-title":"Microbiome dysbiosis in lung cancer: from composition to therapy","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"NPJ Precis Oncol"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2017.11.036","article-title":"Interplay between the lung microbiome and lung cancer","volume":"415","author":"Mao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Lett"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1007\/s12672-025-03440-z","article-title":"The role of oral microbiota in lung carcinogenesis through the oral-lung axis: a comprehensive review of mechanisms and therapeutic potential","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov Oncol"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers18040591","article-title":"The role of the oral microbiome in modulating therapeutic outcomes in lung cancer: key commensals and clinical implications","volume":"18","author":"Pertiwi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.00542-10","article-title":"The human oral microbiome","volume":"192","author":"Dewhirst","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Bacteriol"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0089-x","article-title":"The oral microbiota: dynamic communities and host interactions","volume":"16","author":"Lamont","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/ers.13.24","article-title":"The role of the bacterial microbiome in lung disease","volume":"7","author":"Dickson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Expert Rev Respir Med"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00400","article-title":"Colon Cancer-Associated Fusobacterium nucleatum May Originate From the Oral Cavity and Reach Colon Tumors via the Circulatory System","volume":"10","author":"Abed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jre.12772","article-title":"Relationship between periodontal disease and lung cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Periodontal Res"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2018.11.028","article-title":"Association of oral health with lung cancer risk in a low-income population of African Americans and European Americans in the Southeastern United States","volume":"127","author":"Yoon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebdp.2023.101897","article-title":"Association of oral microbiota and periodontal disease with lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Evid Based Dent Pract"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxx006","article-title":"Periodontal disease, tooth loss, and cancer risk","volume":"39","author":"Michaud","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol Rev"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djac149","article-title":"The oral microbiome and lung cancer risk: an analysis of 3 prospective cohort studies","volume":"114","author":"Vogtmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Natl Cancer Inst"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-021-01490-6","article-title":"Association of oral microbiota with lung cancer risk in a low-income population in the Southeastern USA","volume":"32","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2020-215542","article-title":"Variation in oral microbiome is associated with future risk of lung cancer among never-smokers","volume":"76","author":"Hosgood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21037\/tlcr-2024-1163","article-title":"Oral microbiome and risk of lung cancer: results from a two-sample mendelian randomization analysis","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transl Lung Cancer Res"},{"key":"B43","article-title":"Discovery and validation of potential bacterial biomarkers for lung cancer","volume":"5","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Cancer Res"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0177062","article-title":"A pilot study using metagenomic sequencing of the sputum microbiome suggests potential bacterial biomarkers for lung cancer","volume":"12","author":"Cameron","year":"2017","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-018-1501-6","article-title":"Interaction between the microbiome and TP53 in human lung cancer","volume":"19","author":"Greathouse","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12838","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49195-w","article-title":"Profiling of lung microbiota discloses differences in adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma","volume":"9","author":"Gomes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-014-0087-z","article-title":"Reagent and laboratory contamination can critically impact sequence-based microbiome analyses","volume":"12","author":"Salter","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Biol"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2018.11.003","article-title":"Contamination in low microbial biomass microbiome studies: issues and recommendations","volume":"27","author":"Eisenhofer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2022-004698","article-title":"Spatial meta-transcriptomics reveal associations of intratumor bacteria burden with lung cancer cells showing a distinct oncogenic signature","volume":"10","author":"Wong-Rolle","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Immunother Cancer"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-021-02375-z","article-title":"The composition of lung microbiome in lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"21","author":"Najafi","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00314-23","article-title":"Characterization of lung and oral microbiomes in lung cancer patients using culturomics and 16S rRNA gene sequencing","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol Spectr"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/10732748261460118","article-title":"Structural and functional alterations of microbiome in upper and lower respiratory tract in patients with NSCLC","volume":"33","author":"Deng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cancer Control"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc4552","article-title":"The microbiome and human cancer","volume":"371","author":"Sepich-Poore","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s12672-023-00748-6","article-title":"Veillonella parvula promotes the proliferation of lung adenocarcinoma through the nucleotide oligomerization domain 2\/cellular communication network factor 4\/nuclear factor kappa B pathway","volume":"14","author":"Zeng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Discov Oncol"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.12.040","article-title":"Commensal microbiota promote lung cancer development via \u03b3\u03b4 T cells","volume":"176","author":"Jin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.can-13-2462","article-title":"Microbiota modulate tumoral immune surveillance in lung through a \u03b3\u03b4T17 immune cell-dependent mechanism","volume":"74","author":"Cheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2017.28","article-title":"IL-17C mediates the recruitment of tumor-associated neutrophils and lung tumor growth","volume":"36","author":"Jungnickel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2024.101488","article-title":"Intratumor microbiome-derived butyrate promotes lung cancer metastasis","volume":"5","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Rep Med"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034519865184","article-title":"Porphyromonas gingivalis impairs oral epithelial barrier through targeting GRHL2","volume":"98","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Dent Res"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008124","article-title":"Porphyromonas gingivalis induces penetration of lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan through the gingival epithelium via degradation of junctional adhesion molecule 1","volume":"15","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2019","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1563410","DOI":"10.1080\/20002297.2018.1563410","article-title":"Possible role of Porphyromonas gingivalis in orodigestive cancers","volume":"11","author":"Olsen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Oral Microbiol"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12425","article-title":"Role of Porphyromonas gingivalis in oral and orodigestive squamous cell carcinoma","volume":"89","author":"Lamont","year":"2022","journal-title":"Periodontol 2000"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2018.00520","article-title":"Dysbiosis of the salivary microbiome is associated with non-smoking female lung cancer and correlated with immunocytochemistry markers","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Oncol"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1102873","article-title":"Reduced lung-cancer mortality with low-dose computed tomographic screening","volume":"365","author":"Aberle","year":"2011","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-024-03280-x","article-title":"Saliva-microbiome-derived signatures: expected to become a potential biomarker for pulmonary nodules (MCEPN-1)","volume":"24","author":"Ren","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/js9.0000000000002152","article-title":"Oral microbiota as a biomarker for predicting the risk of Malignancy in indeterminate pulmonary nodules: a prospective multicenter study","volume":"111","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Surg"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-024-05802-7","article-title":"Diagnostic potential of salivary microbiota in persistent pulmonary nodules: identifying biomarkers and functional pathways using 16S rRNA sequencing and machine learning","volume":"22","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01284-24","article-title":"16S rRNA sequencing reveals relationships among enrichment of oral microbiota in the lower respiratory tract and pulmonary nodules Malignant progression","volume":"13","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microbiol Spectr"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-07570-4","article-title":"Salivary microbial signature highlighting actinomyces as a predictor of immune-checkpoint inhibitor monotherapy response in advanced non-small cell lung cancer","volume":"24","author":"Cavaliere","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/msystems.01115-24","article-title":"Variations in salivary microbiome and metabolites are associated with immunotherapy efficacy in patients with advanced NSCLC","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14121294","article-title":"Identification of oral microbiome biomarkers associated with lung cancer diagnosis and radiotherapy response prediction","volume":"14","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20002297.2026.2675065","article-title":"Association between the oral microbiome and clinical indicators of resectable non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)","volume":"18","author":"DeClercq","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Oral Microbiol"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ctm2.70170","article-title":"Lower respiratory tract microbiome dysbiosis impairs clinical responses to immune checkpoint blockade in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin Transl Med"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21037\/tlcr-24-853","article-title":"Lower respiratory tract microbiome is associated with checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis in lung cancer patients","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transl Lung Cancer Res"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan3706","article-title":"Gut microbiome influences efficacy of PD-1-based immunotherapy against epithelial tumors","volume":"359","author":"Routy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2018-317220","article-title":"Microbiota and cancer immunotherapy: in search of microbial signals","volume":"68","author":"Gharaibeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6066.cir-20-0196","article-title":"The gut microbiome associates with immune checkpoint inhibition outcomes in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer","volume":"8","author":"Hakozaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol Res"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01655-5","article-title":"Intestinal Akkermansia muciniphila predicts clinical response to PD-1 blockade in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer","volume":"28","author":"Derosa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2019.2785","article-title":"Association of prior antibiotic treatment with survival and response to immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in patients with cancer","volume":"5","author":"Pinato","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xjon.2022.01.021","article-title":"An innovative oral management procedure to reduce postoperative complications","volume":"10","author":"Kaga","year":"2022","journal-title":"JTCVS Open"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13709","article-title":"Treatment of periodontitis and C-reactive protein: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials","volume":"50","author":"Luthra","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Clin Periodontol"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.08.090","article-title":"Modulation of pulmonary microbiota by antibiotic or probiotic aerosol therapy: a strategy to promote immunosurveillance against lung metastases","volume":"24","author":"Le Noci","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12511","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-63447-4","article-title":"Linking periodontitis with 20 cancers, emphasis on oropharyngeal cancer: a Mendelian randomization analysis","volume":"14","author":"Xiong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-66780-y","article-title":"Microbiome analysis of 940 lung cancers in never-smokers reveals lack of clinically relevant associations","volume":"17","author":"McElderry","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0605-2","article-title":"Simple statistical identification and removal of contaminant sequences in marker-gene and metagenomics data","volume":"6","author":"Davis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3981","article-title":"Assessment of variation in microbial community amplicon sequencing by the Microbiome Quality Control (MBQC) project consortium","volume":"35","author":"Sinha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Biotechnol"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01552-x","article-title":"Reporting guidelines for human microbiome research: the STORMS checklist","volume":"27","author":"Mirzayi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0029-9","article-title":"Best practices for analysing microbiomes","volume":"16","author":"Knight","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aay9189","article-title":"The human tumor microbiome is composed of tumor type-specific intracellular bacteria","volume":"368","author":"Nejman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05435-0","article-title":"Effect of the intratumoral microbiota on spatial and cellular heterogeneity in cancer","volume":"611","author":"Galeano Ni\u00f1o","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1685862","article-title":"Emerging technologies and current challenges in intratumoral microbiota research","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.09.005","article-title":"Pan-cancer analyses reveal cancer-type-specific fungal ecologies and bacteriome interactions","volume":"185","author":"Narunsky-Haziza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1939497\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T09:21:27Z","timestamp":1789032087000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1939497\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"references-count":92,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1939497"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1939497","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"article-number":"1939497"}}