{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T08:55:59Z","timestamp":1791190559384,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791158400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Immune checkpoint inhibitors have transformed oncology but largely spare immunologically \u201ccold\u201d tumors, those with sparse T-cell infiltration, low PD-L1 expression, and an immunosuppressive microenvironment. The prevailing response has been a combination: adding a priming modality to a checkpoint inhibitor, most often concurrently. We argue that this \u201caddition\u201d paradigm has plateaued in cold disease because it treats combination as arithmetic rather than as a temporally ordered program, and that timing, the order and interval of interventions, may govern outcome as much as the choice of agents. We first define what makes a tumor immunologically cold and why simultaneous stacking reaches a ceiling. We then assemble the clinical evidence that timing already shapes outcomes: most maturely in the scheduling of radiotherapy relative to checkpoint blockade and, strikingly, in neoadjuvant-versus-adjuvant immunotherapy, where the same agent changes outcome according to when it is given. We synthesize the temporal immunobiology that makes ordering matter\u2014antigen release and dendritic-cell priming kinetics, the vascular-normalization window, compensatory adaptive-resistance windows, and the slow dynamics of the gut microbiome\u2014and review, mechanism by mechanism, the timing evidence for microenvironment priming, checkpoint inhibition, and microbiome modulation, emphasizing that mistiming can be harmful rather than merely ineffective. We describe how several groups are translating this principle into integrated, time-sequenced strategies and set out, as one concrete and falsifiable instantiation, a three-axis schema, which we term TMEp-CI-M, illustrated by cross-tumor proof-of-concept experience and framed as hypothesis-generating rather than validated. A therapy built on timing will require dynamic biomarkers of window state and adaptive, biomarker-driven trials. For cold tumors, re-sequencing the agents we already have, rather than adding new ones, may be among the highest-yield and lowest-cost hypotheses in immuno-oncology and one that can be tested now.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1947737","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T08:38:52Z","timestamp":1791189532000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Beyond combination: sequencing priming modalities before immune checkpoint inhibitors to convert immunologically cold tumors toward an ICI-responsive phenotype"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Weiqiang","family":"Fan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology, The Cangshan District of the 900th Hospital","place":["Fuzhou, Fujian, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology, The Cangshan District of the 900th Hospital","place":["Fuzhou, Fujian, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yating","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology, The Cangshan District of the 900th Hospital","place":["Fuzhou, Fujian, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yonghai","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology, The Cangshan District of the 900th Hospital","place":["Fuzhou, Fujian, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar4060","article-title":"Cancer immunotherapy using checkpoint 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