{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:43:54Z","timestamp":1785545034117,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774396800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Insect Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Sperm dimorphism, the production of two distinct sperm morphs by a single male, is a widespread but enigmatic reproductive phenomenon. In Lepidoptera, fertilizing eupyrene sperm coexist with anucleate apyrene sperm, which cannot fertilize eggs but are nevertheless required for successful reproduction. Despite the prevalence and presumed adaptive significance of sperm dimorphism, the molecular basis of this trait remains limited. Here, we characterize the proteome of dimorphic sperm in the Cabbage White butterfly,\n                    <jats:italic>Pieris rapae<\/jats:italic>\n                    , an emerging model for sexual selection and postcopulatory interactions. Using high-resolution, label-free mass spectrometry, we identified more than 1,600 proteins, nearly doubling the number of proteins previously reported for other lepidopteran species. Differential abundance analyses revealed eupyrene sperm were enriched for proteins linked to ion transport and vacuolar acidification, while apyrene sperm were enriched for mitochondrial and respiratory functions. Unexpectedly, comparative homology analyses with two other Lepidoptera,\n                    <jats:italic>Danaus plexippus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Manduca sexta<\/jats:italic>\n                    , showed\n                    <jats:italic>P. rapae<\/jats:italic>\n                    shared more homologous sperm proteins with\n                    <jats:italic>M. sexta<\/jats:italic>\n                    than with the more closely related\n                    <jats:italic>D. plexippus<\/jats:italic>\n                    , highlighting complex evolutionary dynamics of sperm proteomes. Together, these findings expand our understanding of sperm function and diversity in Lepidoptera, highlight the distinct roles of eupyrene and apyrene sperm, and provide a foundation for future studies of sperm evolution, sexual selection, and reproductive protein function.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/finsc.2026.1772436","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T15:25:29Z","timestamp":1774452329000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Proteomic analysis of dimorphic sperm in the cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Melissa","family":"Plakke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Science, Mathematics, and Technology, Governors State University","place":["University Park, IL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine","family":"McLaughlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas","place":["Lawrence, KS, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Timothy L.","family":"Karr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosciences Mass Spectrometry Core Research Facility, Knowledge Enterprise, Arizona State University","place":["Tempe, AZ, United States"]},{"name":"ASU-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Arizona State University","place":["Tempe, AZ, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James R.","family":"Walters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas","place":["Lawrence, KS, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-372568-4.00003-3","article-title":"3 - Sperm morphological diversity","volume-title":"Sperm biology","author":"Pitnick","year":"2009"},{"key":"B2","article-title":"Morphological diversity of sperm: A mini review","volume":"12","author":"Prakash","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran J Reprod Med"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/news.2010.22","article-title":"Brother sperm train together","author":"Whitfield","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B4","article-title":"Nematode sperm motility  (April 4, 2014)","volume-title":"WormBook","author":"Smith","year":"2014"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/evo.13555","article-title":"Sperm head morphology is associated with sperm swimming speed: A comparative study of songbirds using electron microscopy","volume":"72","author":"St\u00f8stad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Evol (N Y)"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icp109","article-title":"Sperm biology - an evolutionary perspective. 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