{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T17:46:42Z","timestamp":1767116802766,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":140,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]],"date-time":"2021-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633996800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Ministero della Salute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Following the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, several clinical trials have been approved for the investigation of the possible use of mAbs, supporting the potential of this technology as a therapeutic approach for infectious diseases. The first monoclonal antibody (mAb), Muromonab CD3, was introduced for the prevention of kidney transplant rejection more than 30 years ago; since then more than 100 mAbs have been approved for therapeutic purposes. Nonetheless, only four mAbs are currently employed for infectious diseases: Palivizumab, for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections, Raxibacumab and Obiltoxaximab, for the prophylaxis and treatment against anthrax toxin and Bezlotoxumab, for the prevention of<jats:italic>Clostridium difficile<\/jats:italic>recurrence. Protozoan infections are often neglected diseases for which effective and safe chemotherapies are generally missing. In this context, drug resistance and drug toxicity are two crucial problems. The recent advances in bioinformatics, parasite genomics, and biochemistry methodologies are contributing to better understand parasite biology, which is essential to guide the development of new therapies. In this review, we present the efforts that are being made in the evaluation of mAbs for the prevention or treatment of leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, malaria, and toxoplasmosis. Particular emphasis will be placed on the potential strengths and weaknesses of biological treatments in the control of these protozoan diseases that are still affecting hundreds of thousands of people worldwide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.745665","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,13]],"date-time":"2021-10-13T17:35:26Z","timestamp":1634146526000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Monoclonal Antibodies for Protozoan Infections: A Future Reality or a Utopic Idea?"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Silvia Stefania","family":"Longoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Tiberti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zeno","family":"Bisoffi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Piubelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3608","article-title":"The birth of monoclonal antibodies","volume":"17","author":"Leavy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Immunol."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2012.08.001","article-title":"Monoclonal antibody therapeutics: history and future","volume":"12","author":"Buss","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Opin Pharmocol."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soncn.2019.08.006","article-title":"An overview of monoclonal antibodies","volume":"35","author":"Bayer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin Oncol Nurs."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrleng.2010.06.004","article-title":"Safety profile and practical considerations of monoclonal antibody treatment","volume":"28","author":"Casanova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurol (English Ed)."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1038\/d41573-021-00079-7","article-title":"FDA approves 100th monoclonal antibody product","volume":"20","author":"Mullard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov."},{"unstructured":"","key":"B6"},{"unstructured":"No Title","key":"B7"},{"unstructured":"WHO - NTDs","key":"B8"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e338","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30261-0","article-title":"Antimalarial drug resistance in Africa: the calm before the storm?","volume":"19","author":"Conrad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5748","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20225748","article-title":"An overview of drug resistance in protozoal diseases","volume":"20","author":"Capela","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s11686-020-00284-1","article-title":"Haemonchus contortus susceptibility and resistance to anthelmintics in naturally infected Egyptian sheep","volume":"66","author":"Aboelhadid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04397-4","article-title":"Integrative genomic, proteomic and phenotypic studies of Leishmania donovani strains revealed genetic features associated with virulence and antimony resistance","volume":"13","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3745","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-020-02412-5","article-title":"Occurrence of Trypanosoma spp. and piroplasm infections of horses at Obollo-Afor southeastern Nigeria and resistance profiles of trypanosomes to isometamidium and diminazene salts","volume":"52","author":"Emeto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/4868797","article-title":"Anthelmintic efficacy of strongyle nematodes to ivermectin and fenbendazole on working donkeys (Equus asinus) in and around Hosaena Town, Southern Ethiopia","volume":"2020","author":"Fesseha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet Med Int."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2019.10.030","article-title":"Comparison of the toxicity of two treatment schemes with benznidazole for chronic Chagas disease: a prospective cohort study in two Spanish referral centres","volume":"26","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-907568-37-4.50029-4","volume-title":"Therapeutic Antibody Engineering","year":"2012"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2016.03.007","article-title":"PD-1 function in apoptosis of T lymphocytes in canine visceral leishmaniasis","volume":"221","author":"Chiku","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunobiology."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5542","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1301810","article-title":"Programmed death 1-mediated T cell exhaustion during visceral leishmaniasis impairs phagocyte function","volume":"191","author":"Esch","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Immunol."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2012.04.007","article-title":"Leishmania donovani: CD2 biased immune response skews the SAG mediated therapy for a predominant Th1 response in experimental infection","volume":"131","author":"Bimal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp Parasitol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1004550","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004550","article-title":"Blocking junctional adhesion molecule C enhances dendritic cell migration and boosts the immune responses against Leishmania major","volume":"10","author":"Ballet","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.162.2.974","article-title":"Anti-TGF-beta treatment promotes rapid healing of Leishmania major infection in mice by enhancing in vivo nitric oxide production","volume":"162","author":"Li","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Immunol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2008.03.008","article-title":"The regulatory CD4+CD25+ T cells have a limited role on pathogenesis of infection with Trypanosoma cruzi","volume":"10","author":"Sales-Junior","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1556\/EuJMI.4.2014.2.6","article-title":"Administration of a nondepleting anti-CD25 monoclonal antibody reduces disease severity in mice infected with Trypanosoma cruzi","volume":"4","author":"Nihei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur J Microbiol Immunol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0881-9","article-title":"Evolution of protective human antibodies against Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein repeat motifs","volume":"26","author":"Murugan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Med."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5318","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84622-x","article-title":"in vitro and in vivo inhibition of malaria parasite infection by monoclonal antibodies against Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein (CSP)","volume":"11","author":"Livingstone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e96381","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.96381","article-title":"Human vaccination against RH5 induces neutralizing antimalarial antibodies that inhibit RH5 invasion complex interactions","volume":"2","author":"Payne","year":"2017","journal-title":"JCI Insight."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.05.025","article-title":"Human antibodies that slow erythrocyte invasion potentiate malaria-neutralizing antibodies","volume":"178","author":"Alanine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e21347","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.21347","article-title":"Structural basis for inhibition of erythrocyte invasion by antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum protein CyRPA","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Elife."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7553","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1104050108","article-title":"Evidence for erythrocyte-binding antigen 175 as a component of a ligand-blocking blood-stage malaria vaccine","volume":"108","author":"Jiang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1003390","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003390","article-title":"Structural and functional basis for inhibition of erythrocyte invasion by antibodies that target Plasmodium falciparum EBA-175","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39462","DOI":"10.1038\/srep39462","article-title":"Characterization of a novel inhibitory human monoclonal antibody directed against Plasmodium falciparum apical membrane antigen 1","volume":"6","author":"Maskus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-9-77","article-title":"Antibodies against multiple merozoite surface antigens of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum inhibit parasite maturation and red blood cell invasion","volume":"9","author":"Woehlbier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3906","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-40321-2","article-title":"Inhibition of parasite invasion by monoclonal antibody against epidermal growth factor-like domain of Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface protein 1 paralog","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4458","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06742-9","article-title":"Structural delineation of potent transmission-blocking epitope I on malaria antigen Pfs48\/45","volume":"9","author":"Kundu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Commun."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000007101","article-title":"Membrane localization and demonstration of isoforms of nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase from Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"122","author":"Kikuchi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"unstructured":"Leishmanisis","key":"B36"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1967","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001967","article-title":"A monoclonal antibody-based copro-ELISA kit for canine Echinococcosis to support the PAHO effort for hydatid disease control in South America","volume":"7","author":"Morel","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"unstructured":"Leishmanisis","key":"B38"},{"unstructured":"MaxfieldL CraneJS Leishmaniasis2021","key":"B39"},{"unstructured":"Leishmanisis","key":"B40"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v19i1.4","article-title":"Review of Leishmaniasis in the Middle East and North Africa","volume":"19","author":"Tabbabi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Afr Health Sci."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0408","article-title":"Social and economic burden of human leishmaniasis","volume":"94","author":"Okwor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpddr.2013.11.004","article-title":"A novel marker, ARM58, confers antimony resistance to Leishmania spp","volume":"4","author":"N\u00fchs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S146521","article-title":"Leishmaniasis in humans: drug or vaccine therapy?","volume":"12","author":"Ghorbani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug Des Devel Ther."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2210-2-11","article-title":"in vitro susceptibility to pentavalent antimony in Leishmania infantum strains is not modified during in vitro or in vivo passages but is modified after host treatment with meglumine antimoniate","volume":"2","author":"Carri\u00f3","year":"2002","journal-title":"BMC Pharmacol."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0006052","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006052","article-title":"Drug resistance and treatment failure in leishmaniasis: a 21st century challenge","volume":"11","author":"Ponte-Sucre","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0006310","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006310","article-title":"Antimony susceptibility of Leishmania isolates collected over a 30-year period in Algeria","volume":"12","author":"Eddaikra","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1017\/S003118201600216X","article-title":"Leishmaniasis and various immunotherapeutic approaches","volume":"145","author":"Taslimi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182017002116","article-title":"Chemotherapeutics of visceral leishmaniasis: present and future developments","volume":"145","author":"Sundar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2010.02.018","article-title":"Comparative proteomic analysis of whole saliva from chronic periodontitis patients","volume":"73","author":"Gon\u00e7alves","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Proteomics."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16824","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.28358","article-title":"PD-1\/PD-L1 pathway: basic biology and role in cancer immunotherapy","volume":"234","author":"Salmaninejad","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Cell Physiol."},{"unstructured":"Monoclonal Antibodies Approved by the EMA and FDA for Therapeutic Use (status 2017)","key":"B52"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574491","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.574491","article-title":"Programmed cell death ligand (PD-L)-1 contributes to the regulation of CD4+ T effector and regulatory T cells in cutaneous Leishmaniasis","volume":"11","author":"Freitas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2011.10.007","article-title":"Role of trypanosomatid's arginase in polyamine biosynthesis and pathogenesis","volume":"181","author":"Bala\u00f1a-Fouce","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol Biochem Parasitol."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2021.07.012","article-title":"Immune-metabolic interactions between Leishmania and macrophage host","volume":"63","author":"Ferreira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Microbiol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20275","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56336-8","article-title":"Immunotherapy using anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 in Leishmania amazonensis-infected BALB\/c mice reduce parasite load","volume":"9","author":"da","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4012","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.166.6.4012","article-title":"Rapidly fatal Leishmaniasis in resistant C57BL\/6 mice lacking TNF","volume":"166","author":"Wilhelm","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Immunol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.10-0680","article-title":"Lesion size correlates with Leishmania antigen-stimulated TNF-levels in human cutaneous Leishmaniasis","volume":"85","author":"Barral","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6734","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.12.6734-6740.2002","article-title":"Up-regulation of Th1-type responses in mucosal Leishmaniasis patients","volume":"70","author":"Bacellar","year":"2002","journal-title":"Infect Immun."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdermsci.2018.07.005","article-title":"Combination of paromomycin plus human anti-TNF-\u03b1 antibodies to control the local inflammatory response in BALB\/ mice with cutaneous leishmaniasis lesions","volume":"92","author":"Schwartz","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Dermatol Sci."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3175","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4141(200111)31:11<3175::AID-IMMU3175>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"Anti-IL-4 antibody therapy causes regression of chronic lesions caused by medium-dose Leishmania major infection in BALB\/c mice","volume":"31","author":"Uzonna","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur J Immunol."},{"unstructured":"","key":"B62"},{"unstructured":"American Trypanosomiasis","key":"B63"},{"unstructured":"Chagas Disease","key":"B64"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30535-2","article-title":"The long road towards a safe and effective treatment of chronic Chagas disease","volume":"18","author":"Urbina","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"key":"B66","first-page":"323","article-title":"Chagas disease treatment efficacy biomarkers: myths and realities","volume-title":"Chagas Disease. Birkh\u00e4user Advances in Infectious Diseases","author":"Ruiz-Lancheros","year":"2019"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.2147\/JEP.S267378","article-title":"Review on experimental treatment strategies against trypanosoma cruzi","volume":"13","author":"Mazzeti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Exp Pharmacol."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/683230","article-title":"Chagas disease cardiomyopathy: immunopathology and genetics","volume":"2014","author":"Cunha-Neto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mediators Inflamm."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01929","article-title":"The unsolved jigsaw puzzle of the immune response in chagas disease","volume":"9","author":"Acevedo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2020.165707","article-title":"Signaling pathways that regulate Trypanosoma cruzi infection and immune response","volume":"1866","author":"Cerb\u00e1n","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00103","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00103-19","article-title":"T-cell immunophenotyping and cytokine production analysis in patients with Chagas disease 4 years after benznidazole treatment","volume":"87","author":"Llaguno","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect Immun."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e992","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000992","article-title":"Regulatory T cells phenotype in different clinical forms of Chagas' disease","volume":"5","author":"de","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01958","article-title":"Distinct treatment outcomes of antiparasitic therapy in trypanosoma cruzi-infected children is associated with early changes in Cytokines, Chemokines, and T-Cell Phenotypes","volume":"9","author":"Albareda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00351","article-title":"Regulatory lymphoid and myeloid cells determine the cardiac immunopathogenesis of Trypanosoma cruzi infection","volume":"9","author":"Fresno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Microbiol."},{"unstructured":"2018","key":"B75"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1517\/14712598.7.1.137","article-title":"The role of basiliximab induction therapy in organ transplantation","volume":"7","author":"Ramirez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Expert Opin Biol Ther."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.3349\/ymj.2021.62.2.164","article-title":"Basiliximab induction with delayed calcineurin inhibitors for high-risk lung transplant candidates","volume":"62","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Yonsei Med J."},{"unstructured":"World Malaria Report 2020:20 Years of Global Progress and Challenges2020","key":"B78"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.14474.","article-title":"Advances and roadblocks in the treatment of malaria","author":"Hanboonkunupakarn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br J Clin Pharmacol"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00168-7","article-title":"Has artemisinin resistance emerged in Africa?","volume":"21","author":"Rosenthal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2019.1669415","article-title":"RTS,S\/AS01 vaccine (MosquirixTM): an overview","volume":"16","author":"Laurens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hum Vaccin Immunother."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.7497\/j.issn.2095-3941.2014.01.002","article-title":"Mechanistic considerations for the use of monoclonal antibodies for cancer therapy","volume":"11","author":"Glassman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Biol Med."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2549-1","article-title":"Injectable anti-malarials revisited: discovery and development of new agents to protect against malaria","volume":"17","author":"Macintyre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1038\/192733a0","article-title":"Gamma-globulin and acquired immunity to human malaria","volume":"192","author":"Cohen","year":"1961","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.f.205","article-title":"Immunity to malaria: more questions than answers","volume":"9","author":"Langhorne","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat Immunol."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2021.104807","article-title":"Anti-malarial humoral immunity: the long and short of it","volume":"23","author":"Rogers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1686","article-title":"Immunological processes in malaria pathogenesis","volume":"5","author":"Schofield","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-019-0209-5","article-title":"Antibodies against Plasmodium falciparum malaria at the molecular level","volume":"19","author":"Julien","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2020.08.009","article-title":"Antibody therapy goes to insects: monoclonal antibodies can block plasmodium transmission to mosquitoes","volume":"36","author":"Coelho","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0161607","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161607","article-title":"A comprehensive analysis of Plasmodium circumsporozoite protein binding to hepatocytes","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.156.1.20","article-title":"Circumsporozoite proteins of human malaria parasites Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax","volume":"156","author":"Nardin","year":"1982","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.157.6.1947","article-title":"Circumsporozoite proteins of malaria parasites contain a single immunodominant region with two or more identical epitopes","volume":"157","author":"Zavala","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Exp Med."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2017-08-802918","article-title":"Disrupting CD147-RAP2 interaction abrogates erythrocyte invasion by Plasmodium falciparum","volume":"131","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(01)00199-4","article-title":"A central role for P48\/45 in malaria parasite male gamete fertility","volume":"104","author":"van","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cell."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/1980556671","article-title":"[Experimental Schistosoma mansoni parasitosis in golden hamsters. Effects on the intensity of parasitism, and on the rate of antibodies' circulation, after administration of estrogen, testosterone, or progesterone (author's transl)]","volume":"55","author":"Barrabes","year":"1980","journal-title":"Ann Parasitol Hum Comp."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-019-01405-7","article-title":"The one health approach to toxoplasmosis: epidemiology, control, and prevention strategies","volume":"16","author":"Aguirre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecohealth."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.05.035","volume":"28","author":"Kochanowsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxoplasma gondii. Curr Biol"},{"unstructured":"Parasites - Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection)","key":"B98"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.01.008","article-title":"Global prevalence of latent toxoplasmosis in pregnant women: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Rostami","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2020.10.019","article-title":"Foodborne transmission of Toxoplasma gondii infection in the last decade. An overview","volume":"135","author":"Almeria","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2019.07.001","volume":"35","author":"Lourido","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxoplasma gondii. Trends Parasitol"},{"volume-title":"Parasites in Foods: An Invisible Threat","year":"2021","key":"B102"},{"unstructured":"","key":"B103"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1086\/590149","article-title":"Management of Toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy","volume":"47","author":"Montoya","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis."},{"key":"B105","first-page":"109","article-title":"Functional exhaustion of T lymphocytes in chronic toxoplasmosis","volume":"59","author":"D\u0142ugo\u0144ska","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann Parasitol."},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00057","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00057-17","article-title":"Treatment of toxoplasmosis: historical perspective, animal models, and current clinical practice","volume":"31","author":"Dunay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00036","article-title":"Treatment of toxoplasmosis: current options and future perspectives","volume":"15","author":"Konstantinovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11391","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.270.19.11391","article-title":"Biochemical and molecular characterization of nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase isozymes from the parasitic protozoan Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"270","author":"Asai","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1994","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00077-16","article-title":"Functional analysis of the role of Toxoplasma gondii nucleoside triphosphate hydrolases I and II in acute mouse virulence and immune suppression","volume":"84","author":"Olias","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect Immun."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2009.12.007","article-title":"Monoclonal antibodies against nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase-II can reduce the replication of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"59","author":"Tan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasitol Int"},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.12.004","article-title":"Protective immune response in mice induced by a suicidal DNA vaccine encoding NTPase-II gene of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"166","author":"Zheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00605","article-title":"Induction of protective immunity against Toxoplasma gondii in mice by nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase-II (NTPase-II) self-amplifying RNA vaccine encapsulated in lipid nanoparticle (LNP)","volume":"8","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Microbiol."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182020000177","article-title":"Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii ROP18 with strain-specific reactivity","volume":"147","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitology."},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1089\/mab.2019.0041","article-title":"Peptide-based monoclonal antibody production against SAG1 (P30) protein of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"39","author":"Naghi","year":"2020"},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.58.6.1634-1639.1990","article-title":"Inhibition of Trichomonas vaginalis motility by monoclonal antibodies is associated with reduced adherence to HeLa cell monolayers","volume":"58","author":"Krieger","year":"1990","journal-title":"Infect Immun."},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2007.10.005","article-title":"Comparative study of epitopes recognized by two monoclonal antibodies that protects mice against Trichomonas vaginalis challenge","volume":"118","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp Parasitol."},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0141-9838.2004.00690.x","article-title":"Monoclonal antibodies against a 62 kDa proteinase of Trichomonas vaginalis decrease parasite cytoadherence to epithelial cells and confer protection in mice","volume":"26","author":"Hernandez","year":"2004","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.28485","article-title":"Prospects for immunotherapy and vaccines against Cryptosporidium","volume":"10","author":"Mead","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum Vaccin Immunother."},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00233","article-title":"Immune evasion strategies of Trypanosoma brucei within the mammalian host: progression to pathogenicity","volume":"7","author":"Stijlemans","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2738","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02738","article-title":"Host immune responses and immune evasion strategies in African Trypanosomiasis","volume":"10","author":"Onyilagha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.09.65","article-title":"African trypanosomiasis and antibodies: implications for vaccination, therapy and diagnosis","volume":"4","author":"Magez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.7.11.18203","article-title":"Vaccination against trypanosomiasis","volume":"7","author":"La","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum Vaccin."},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2016.04.003","article-title":"Nanobodies as therapeutics: big opportunities for small antibodies","volume":"21","author":"Steeland","year":"2016","journal-title":"Drug Discov Today."},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00724","article-title":"Nanobodies as tools to understand, diagnose, and treat African Trypanosomiasis","volume":"8","author":"Stijlemans","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1002072","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002072","article-title":"High affinity nanobodies against the Trypanosome brucei VSG are potent trypanolytic agents that block endocytosis","volume":"7","author":"Stijlemans","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25801","article-title":"Tocilizumab treatment in COVID-19: a single center experience","volume":"92","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Med Virol."},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16452-w","article-title":"A human monoclonal antibody blocking SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Commun."},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061171","article-title":"Anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and monoclonal antibodies facing viral variants","volume":"13","author":"Chaqroun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2018.05.014","article-title":"The increasingly human and profitable monoclonal antibody market","volume":"37","author":"Grilo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"B130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1007\/s12247-018-09370-4","article-title":"Economic analysis of batch and continuous biopharmaceutical antibody production: A review","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Pharm Innov"},{"key":"B131","first-page":"109","article-title":"Pricing of monoclonal antibody therapies: higher if used for cancer?","volume":"24","author":"Hernandez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Manag Care."},{"unstructured":"Bill& Melinda Gates foundation Malaria","key":"B132"},{"unstructured":"RBMPartnership to End Malaria Coordinated Action Towards Ending Malaria","key":"B133"},{"key":"B134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"580425","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.580425","article-title":"Influence of the host and parasite strain on the immune response during toxoplasma infection","volume":"10","author":"Mukhopadhyay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol."},{"key":"B135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.1998.tb01170.x","article-title":"Influence of the host and parasite strain in a mouse model of visceral Leishmania infantum infection","volume":"21","author":"Honor\u00e9","year":"1998","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol."},{"key":"B136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-46652014000100001","article-title":"ANIMAL MODELS FOR THE STUDY OF LEISHMANIASIS IMMUNOLOGY","volume":"56","author":"Loria-Cervera","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev Inst Med Trop S\u00e3o Paulo."},{"key":"B137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1159\/000370238","article-title":"Anti-tumour necrosis factor-induced visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis: case report and review of the literature","volume":"230","author":"Catal\u00e0","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dermatology."},{"key":"B138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1590\/abd1806-4841.20177346","article-title":"Reactivation of Chagas-Mazza disease during treatment with infliximab","volume":"92","author":"Vacas","year":"2017","journal-title":"An Bras Dermatol."},{"key":"B139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab141","article-title":"Engineering and functional evaluation of neutralizing antibody fragments against congenital toxoplasmosis","volume":"224","author":"di","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0223773","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0223773","article-title":"Engineering a single-chain antibody against Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes to block cell invasion","volume":"14","author":"Demeu","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Medicine"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2021.745665\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T02:42:04Z","timestamp":1673491324000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2021.745665\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]]},"references-count":140,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmed.2021.745665"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2021.745665","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-858X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2296-858X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]]},"article-number":"745665"}}