{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T14:28:05Z","timestamp":1789741685800,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]],"date-time":"2022-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649721600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The interdiction of restricted and hazardous biological agents presents challenges for any detection method due to the inherent complexity of sample type and accessibility. Detection capabilities for this category of agents are limited and restricted in their mobility, adaptability and efficiency. The potential for identifying biological agents through a volatile organic compound (VOC) signature presents an opportunity to use detection dogs in a real-time mobile capacity for surveillance and screening strategies. However, the safe handling and access to the materials needed for training detection dogs on restricted or hazardous biological agents prevents its broader application in this field. This study evaluated the use of a polymer-based training aid in a viral detection model using bovine viral diarrhea virus mimicking biosafety level 3+ agent conditions. After the biological agent-based odor was absorbed into the polymer, the aid was rendered safe for handling through a rigorous sterilization process. The viral culture-based training aid was then used to train a cohort of detection dogs (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic> = 6) to discriminate agent-based target odor in culture from relevant distractor odors including non-target biological agent-based odors. Following culture-based training, dogs were tested for generalization to aids with infected animal sample-based odors across five sample types (fecal, blood, nasal, saliva, and urine). Within the context of the polymer-based training aid system, dogs were successfully trained to detect and discriminate a representative biological viral agent-based odor from distractor odors with a 97.22% (\u00b12.78) sensitivity and 97.11% (\u00b11.94) specificity. Generalization from the agent-based odor to sample-based odors ranged from 65.40% (\u00b18.98) to 91.90 % (\u00b16.15) sensitivity and 88.61% (\u00b11.46) to 96.00% (\u00b10.89) specificity across the sample types. The restrictive nature for mimicking the access and handling of a BSL 3+ agent presented challenges that required a strict study design uncommon to standard detection dog training and odor presentation. This study demonstrates the need to further evaluate the utility and challenges of training detection dogs to alert to biological samples using safe and manageable training aids.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.847620","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]],"date-time":"2022-04-12T09:42:54Z","timestamp":1649756574000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A Novel Method for Training the Interdiction of Restricted and Hazardous Biological Materials by Detection Dogs"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Melissa","family":"Singletary","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Krichbaum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Passler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucia","family":"Lazarowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Terrence","family":"Fischer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott","family":"Silvis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"L. 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