{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T21:25:43Z","timestamp":1790717143198,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012151","name":"Sanming Project of Medicine in Shenzhen","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012151","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Interstitial lung disease and pulmonary sarcoidosis (ILD&amp;amp;PS) represent a group of respiratory diseases characterized by high heterogeneity and substantial burden. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of burden with ILD&amp;amp;PS and provided estimates for 2040.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Prevalence, incidence, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and deaths were analyzed at global, regional, and national levels using GBD 2021 data. Subgroup analyses were performed by age and gender to assess the quantity of global burden and trends. The BAPC model was used to forecast the worldwide disease load until 2040.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>From 1990 to 2021, global prevalence, incidence, DALYs, and mortality rates of ILD&amp;amp;PS increased by 128% (1887445.26 to 4306627.72), 148% (157,441.17 to 390,267.11), 169% (1,501,028.43 to 4,042,150.49), and 242% (54,967.23 to 188,222.37), respectively. Furthermore, the corresponding age-standardized rates (ASRs) also showed an upward trend. Additionally, the burden in Australasia and Andean Latin America varied greatly at the regional level, with ASRs burden increasing highest in high sociodemographic index (SDI) region over the previous 32 years. Correlation analysis revealed a positive correlation between ASR burden and SDI. Subgroup analysis showed a higher burden in adults over 50 and consistently greater burden in males than females.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The overall burden of ILD&amp;amp;PS increased from 1990 to 2021, and by 2040, the ASRs burden were expected to progressively normalize. Policymakers should give prevention and treatment measures top priority, paying special attention to high-burden areas and populations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1650997","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T15:15:22Z","timestamp":1761578122000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Global, regional and national burden of interstitial lung disease and pulmonary sarcoidosis, 1990\u20132021 and projection to 2040"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Xinxin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanting","family":"Zhuang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yizi","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huiqiu","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wujin","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuguang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiufang","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leshen","family":"Lian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xusheng","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shaofeng","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.3669","article-title":"Interstitial lung disease: a review","volume":"331","author":"Maher","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30064-X","article-title":"Pulmonary sarcoidosis","volume":"6","author":"Spagnolo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141372","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1141372","article-title":"Global trends of interstitial lung diseases from 1990 to 2019: an age-period-cohort study based on the global burden of disease study 2019, and projections until 2030","volume":"10","author":"Zeng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Med (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2002718","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02718-2020","article-title":"Progressive fibrosing interstitial lung disease: a clinical cohort (the progress study)","volume":"57","author":"Nasser","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01052-2","article-title":"Interstitial lung diseases","volume":"400","author":"Wijsenbeek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13237350","article-title":"Interstitial lung disease epidemiology in the past three decades: a narrative review","volume":"13","author":"Puppo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-022-01961-9","article-title":"Interstitial lung abnormalities and interstitial lung diseases associated with cigarette smoking in a rural cohort undergoing surgical resection","volume":"22","author":"Sangani","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Pulm Med"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2017.11.030","article-title":"The pathogenesis of pulmonary sarcoidosis and implications for treatment","volume":"153","author":"Patterson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.1570","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis: a review","volume":"327","author":"Belperio","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1080\/0142159X.2021.1959025","article-title":"Who do i think you are? The guessing game ice breaker: building community","volume":"43","author":"Knickle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med Teach"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01990-1","article-title":"The global burden of disease study at 30 years","volume":"28","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00769-4","article-title":"Findings from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"403","author":"Murray","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2892","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-20430-y","article-title":"Global health inequalities in the burden of interstitial lung disease and pulmonary sarcoidosis from 1990 to 2021","volume":"24","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00757-8","article-title":"Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (ylds), disability-adjusted life-years (dalys), and healthy life expectancy (hale) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-024-01798-z","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden and trends of migraine among women of childbearing age from 1990 to 2021: insights from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"25","author":"Cen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Headache Pain"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2023.2029","article-title":"Global, regional, and national epidemiology of diabetes in children from 1990 to 2019","volume":"177","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30925-9","article-title":"Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"396","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1951","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000001071","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of inguinal, femoral, and abdominal hernias: a systematic analysis of prevalence, incidence, deaths, and dalys with projections to 2030","volume":"110","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Surg"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.33617","article-title":"Burden of pancreatic cancer along with attributable risk factors in europe between 1990 and 2019, and projections until 2039","volume":"149","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Cancer"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2100","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00367-2","article-title":"Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1258853","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1258853","article-title":"The global burden of traumatic amputation in 204 countries and territories","volume":"11","author":"Yuan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1384825","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1384825","article-title":"Editorial: epidemiology and risk factors for interstitial lung diseases","volume":"11","author":"Jeganathan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Med (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2022.104709","article-title":"Urbanization and population aging: converging trends of demographic transitions in modern world","volume":"101","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch Gerontol Geriatr"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare8020123","article-title":"The role of macroeconomic indicators on healthcare cost","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel)"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202103-0559UP","article-title":"Update in interstitial lung disease 2020","volume":"203","author":"Podolanczuk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.5334\/aogh.2414","article-title":"Interstitial lung diseases in developing countries","volume":"85","author":"Rivera-Ortega","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann Glob Health"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.3390\/arm92030020","article-title":"Diagnostic value of imaging and serological biomarkers in pulmonary sarcoidosis","volume":"92","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv Respir Med"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0050-2015","article-title":"Smoking and interstitial lung diseases","volume":"24","author":"Margaritopoulos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"L233","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00083.2023","article-title":"Tobacco smoking is associated with combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema and worse outcomes in interstitial lung disease","volume":"325","author":"Douglas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am J Phys Lung Cell Mol Phys"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15033","DOI":"10.1057\/palcomms.2015.33","article-title":"The demographic transition and economic growth: implications for development policy","volume":"1","author":"Ranganathan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Palgrave Commun"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30105-3","article-title":"Prevalence and attributable health burden of chronic respiratory diseases, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017","volume":"8","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2022.2131663","article-title":"Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: what do we know about the role of occupational and environmental determinants? A systematic literature review and meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Pauchet","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2022-108632","article-title":"Airborne occupational exposures associated with pulmonary sarcoidosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"80","author":"Huntley","year":"2023","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2021.03.008","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of fibrotic interstitial lung diseases","volume":"42","author":"Collins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Chest Med"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202002-0360UP","article-title":"Update in interstitial lung disease 2019","volume":"202","author":"Montesi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.14-1299","article-title":"Air pollution exposure: a novel environmental risk factor for interstitial lung disease?","volume":"147","author":"Johannson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsames.2020.102790","article-title":"Geochemical characterization and origin of crude oils in the Oriente Basin, Ecuador, South America","volume":"104","author":"Zhong-Zhen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J S Am Earth Sci"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1216924","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1216924","article-title":"Current status, trends, and predictions in the burden of silicosis in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019","volume":"11","author":"Yi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1097\/JOM.0000000000000401","article-title":"Possible health effects of living in proximity to mining sites near Potosi, Bolivia","volume":"57","author":"Farag","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25891","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-77769-w","article-title":"High sodium intake increases interstitial lung disease and pulmonary sarcoidosis based on the global burden of disease study 1999-2019","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10810","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182010810","article-title":"Mortality and alcohol as its cause-comparative characteristics of the two neighboring countries: Ukraine and Poland","volume":"18","author":"Lyubinets","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-023-08657-3","article-title":"Exploring the impact of population ageing on the spread of emerging respiratory infections and the associated burden of mortality","volume":"23","author":"Mogelmose","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.03.005","article-title":"The aging lung: physiology, disease, and immunity","volume":"184","author":"Schneider","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afac203","article-title":"Sarcoidosis in the older person: diagnostic challenges and treatment consideration","volume":"51","author":"Brennan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1007\/s11325-024-03054-9","article-title":"Assessing the impact of continuous positive airway pressure therapy on clinical outcomes in interstitial lung disease patients with coexisting obstructive sleep apnea: a systematic review","volume":"28","author":"Srivali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sleep Breath"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e140","DOI":"10.3399\/bjgp20X713933","article-title":"Respiratory infections in children: an appropriateness study of when parents should home care or seek medical help","volume":"71","author":"Newbould","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br J Gen Pract"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2021.04.035","article-title":"Tobacco smoking and risk for pulmonary fibrosis: a prospective cohort study from the UK biobank","volume":"160","author":"Bellou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rxeng.2022.10.008","article-title":"Smoking-related interstitial lung disease","volume":"64","author":"Serrano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Radiologia (Engl Ed)"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e44246","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-044246","article-title":"Sex differences and factors associated with disability among Ghana's workforce: a nationally stratified cross-sectional study","volume":"11","author":"Tetteh","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.4105","article-title":"Occupational exposure to silica dust in France: an ongoing concern","volume":"49","author":"Delabre","year":"2023","journal-title":"Scand J Work Environ Health"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2020.03.008","article-title":"Sex related differences in the pathogenesis of organ fibrosis","volume":"222","author":"Garate-Carrillo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl Res"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1183\/20734735.000318","article-title":"Sex differences in respiratory function","volume":"14","author":"LoMauro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Breathe (Sheff)"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12743","article-title":"3D analysis of sexual dimorphism in size, shape and breathing kinematics of human lungs","volume":"232","author":"Torres-Tamayo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Anat"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2010.064097","article-title":"Gender differences in occupational exposure patterns","volume":"68","author":"Eng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-5332-x","article-title":"Gender differences in occupational exposure to carcinogens among italian workers","volume":"18","author":"Scarselli","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.36141\/svdld.v36i4.8418","article-title":"Are idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients more anxious and depressive than patient's with other interstitial lung disease?","volume":"36","author":"Yalniz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21754","article-title":"Breast cancer statistics, 2022","volume":"72","author":"Giaquinto","year":"2022","journal-title":"CA Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.esmoop.2023.102043","article-title":"Multidisciplinary clinical guidelines in proactive monitoring, early diagnosis, and effective management of trastuzumab deruxtecan (t-dxd)-induced interstitial lung disease (ild) in breast cancer patients","volume":"8","author":"Wekking","year":"2023","journal-title":"Esmo Open"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjms.2020.04.023","article-title":"Sex-based differences in interstitial lung disease","volume":"360","author":"Pandit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Med Sci"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Medicine"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1650997\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T15:15:24Z","timestamp":1761578124000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1650997\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"references-count":59,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmed.2025.1650997"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1650997","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-858X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-858X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"article-number":"1650997"}}