{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T00:25:44Z","timestamp":1793579144868,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Central airway diseases, though infrequent, represent a critical yet underrecognized cause of respiratory failure in the intensive care unit (ICU). These disorders encompass a wide range of pathologies\u2014including central airway obstruction (CAO), tracheal stenosis, tracheomalacia, tracheomegaly, tracheoesophageal fistulas, and post-intubation lacerations\u2014which can significantly complicate ventilation, extubation, and weaning. This narrative review explores the complex anatomical and physiological properties of the trachea and main bronchi, highlighting the profound impact of their even partial occlusion on airway resistance and work of breathing. We present the pathophysiological bases, diagnostic strategies, and up-to-date management options for both benign and malignant CAO, with particular attention to the ICU setting where urgent interventions are often required. The review also addresses iatrogenic airway injuries related to mechanical ventilation and airway equipment, analyzing both conservative and interventional therapeutic approaches, including endoscopic techniques and airway stenting. Special focus is given to the implications of central airway pathology in weaning failure, emphasizing the importance of early recognition to avoid unnecessary reintubations. Overall, this work aims to raise awareness among intensivists and pulmonologists of the pivotal role that central airway diseases may play in respiratory deterioration, and to advocate for a structured, multidisciplinary approach to their prompt diagnosis and treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1712110","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T11:37:40Z","timestamp":1768217860000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The forgotten airway: central airway pathology in the ICU"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Marchioni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Moretti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luca","family":"Tabbi'","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Livrieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martina","family":"Tartaglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michele","family":"Gentile","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Scorsone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Mattioli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Tonelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enrico M.","family":"Clini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1979.sp012638","article-title":"Mechanics of the trachea and behavior of its slowly adapting stretch receptors","volume":"286","author":"Mortola","year":"1979","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thorsurg.2013.09.004","article-title":"Trachea: anatomy and physiology","volume":"24","author":"Brand-Saberi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thorac Surg Clin."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1148\/88.4.653","article-title":"Tracheal dynamics in infants with respiratory distress, stridor, and collapsing trachea","volume":"88","author":"Wittenborg","year":"1967","journal-title":"Radiology."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.7b00738","article-title":"Trachea mechanics for tissue engineering design","volume":"4","author":"Boazak","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Biomater Sci Eng."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1967.22.1.95","article-title":"Significance of the relationship between lung recoil and maximum expiratory flow","volume":"22","author":"Mead","year":"1967","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1053\/prrv.2000.0010","article-title":"The physiology of forced expiration","volume":"1","author":"Zach","year":"2000","journal-title":"Paediatr Respir Rev."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.3390\/ma9060456","article-title":"Mechanical characterization and constitutive modeling of human trachea: age and gender dependency","volume":"9","author":"Safshekan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Materials."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2012.04.002","article-title":"Anisotropic material behaviours of soft tissues in human trachea: an experimental study","volume":"45","author":"Teng","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Biomech."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2016.02.001","article-title":"Central airway obstruction: benign strictures, tracheobronchomalacia, and malignancy-related obstruction","volume":"150","author":"Murgu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chest."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200210-1181SO","article-title":"Central airway obstruction","volume":"169","author":"Ernst","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anorl.2010.12.011","article-title":"Diagnostic value of various investigations in children with suspected foreign body aspiration: review","volume":"128","author":"Hitter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.27006","article-title":"Relationship between degree of obstruction and airflow limitation in subglottic stenosis","volume":"128","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Laryngoscope."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2421","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052421","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms and physiological changes behind benign tracheal and subglottic stenosis in adults","volume":"23","author":"Marchioni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201312-2193CI","article-title":"The application of esophageal pressure measurement in patients with respiratory failure","volume":"189","author":"Akoumianaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2024.06.3804","article-title":"Management of central airway obstruction: an American college of chest physicians clinical practice guideline","volume":"167","author":"Mahmood","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chest."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.14764","article-title":"World association for bronchology and interventional pulmonology (WABIP) guidelines on airway stenting for malignant central airway obstruction","volume":"29","author":"Chaddha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Respirology."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/EJA.0000000000001326","article-title":"Flow-controlled ventilation with the evone ventilator and tritube versus volume-controlled ventilation: a clinical cross-over pilot study describing oxygenation, ventilation and haemodynamic variables","volume":"38","author":"Sebrechts","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.5114\/ait.2022.112889","article-title":"Flow-controlled ventilation - a new and promising method of ventilation presented with a review of the literature","volume":"54","author":"Bialka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anaesthesiol Intensive Ther."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.4097\/kjae.2013.65.3.254","article-title":"Use of the i-gel\u2122 supraglottic airway device in a patient with subglottic stenosis -a case report-","volume":"65","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Korean J Anesthesiol."},{"key":"B20","first-page":"369","article-title":"The use of an i-gel supraglottic airway for the airway management of a patient with subglottic stenosis: a case report","volume":"76","author":"Donaldson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Minerva Anestesiol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/75.6.785","article-title":"Emergency use of the laryngeal mask airway in severe upper airway obstruction caused by supraglottic oedema","volume":"75","author":"Daumerie","year":"1995","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anclin.2010.01.010","article-title":"Anesthesia for the patient with tracheal stenosis","volume":"28","author":"Daumerie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anesthesiol Clin."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/S0888-6296(09)90012-6","article-title":"The effective tracheal diameter that causes air trapping during jet ventilation","volume":"4","author":"Dworkin","year":"1990","journal-title":"J Cardiothorac Anesth."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2020.00006","article-title":"Evone\u00ae flow-controlled ventilation during upper airway surgery: a clinical feasibility study and safety assessment","volume":"7","author":"Meulemans","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Surg."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3154","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd.2017.08.77","article-title":"Airway stenting in patients requiring intubation due to malignant airway stenosis: a 10-year experience","volume":"9","author":"Oki","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Thorac Dis."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1159\/000339316","article-title":"Bronchoscopic intervention obviates the need for continued mechanical ventilation in patients with airway obstruction and respiratory failure from inoperable non-small-cell lung cancer","volume":"84","author":"Murgu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Respiration."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2006.03.037","article-title":"Stenting allows weaning and extubation in ventilator- or tracheostomy dependency secondary to benign airway disease","volume":"101","author":"Noppen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Respir Med."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1002\/lio2.734","article-title":"Stenting versus balloon dilatation in patients with tracheal benign stenosis: the STROBE trial","volume":"7","author":"Marchioni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Laryngoscope Investig Otolaryngol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.athoracsur.2015.10.005","article-title":"Bronchoscopic treatment in the management of benign tracheal stenosis: choices for simple and complex tracheal stenosis","volume":"101","author":"Dalar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann Thorac Surg."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1676574","article-title":"Benign central airway obstruction","volume":"39","author":"Oberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Semin Respir Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000004015","article-title":"Incidence and outcomes of acute laryngeal injury after prolonged mechanical ventilation","volume":"47","author":"Shinn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-010-1847-z","article-title":"Post-intubation laryngeal injuries and extubation failure: a fiberoptic endoscopic study","volume":"36","author":"Tadi\u00e9","year":"2010","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.115995","article-title":"Mechanisms of fibrosis in iatrogenic laryngotracheal stenosis: new discoveries and novel targets","volume":"170","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thorsurg.2013.10.003","article-title":"Endoscopic treatment of tracheal stenosis","volume":"24","author":"Freitag","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thorac Surg Clin."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd-20-2327","article-title":"Long-term efficacy and safety of the Dumon stent for benign tracheal stenosis: a meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Thorac Dis."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3998","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd-22-1734","article-title":"The role of bronchoscopy in the multidisciplinary approach to benign tracheal stenosis","volume":"15","author":"Ravikumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Thorac Dis."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1159\/000472155","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of a fully covered self-expandable metallic stent in benign airway stenosis","volume":"93","author":"Fortin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Respiration."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina56080367","article-title":"Clinical outcomes of complications following self-expandable metallic stent insertion for benign tracheobronchial stenosis","volume":"56","author":"Jeong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicina."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107914","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2024.107914","article-title":"State-of-the-art narrative review: Mounier-Kuhn syndrome and tracheobronchomegaly","volume":"237","author":"Sharma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Respir Med."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.4097\/kjae.2010.58.2.197","article-title":"Anesthetic experience of a patient with tracheomegaly -a case report-","volume":"58","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Korean J Anesthesiol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1159\/000445029","article-title":"Groupe d'Endoscopie de Langue Fran\u00e7aise (GELF). Respiratory conditions associated with tracheobronchomegaly (Mounier-Kuhn syndrome): a study of seventeen cases","volume":"91","author":"Schmitt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respiration."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1822","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2013.08.042","article-title":"Mounier-Kuhn syndrome or congenital tracheobronchomegaly: a literature review","volume":"107","author":"Krustins","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir Med."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4922","DOI":"10.21037\/apm-19-681","article-title":"Case report: tracheoesophageal fistula secondary to post-intubation tracheomegaly in a tetanus patient","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann Palliat Med."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-018-2482-z","article-title":"Endotracheal tube size to leakage ventilation and tracheal dilatation","volume":"32","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Anesth."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-018-5450-z","article-title":"Post-intubation tracheal laceration","volume":"45","author":"Nobre de Jesus","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4187\/respcare.02884","article-title":"Complications of airway management","author":"Pacheco-Lopez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Respir Care"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049126","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2022.1049126","article-title":"Post-intubation tracheal lacerations: risk-stratification and treatment protocol according to morphological classification","volume":"9","author":"Cardillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Surg."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2018.07.018","article-title":"Treatment of tracheobronchial injuries: a contemporary review","volume":"155","author":"Grewal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chest."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.2214\/ajr.176.5.1761273","article-title":"Using CT to diagnose tracheal rupture","volume":"176","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Roentgenol."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1125997","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2023.1125997","article-title":"Post-intubation iatrogenic tracheobronchial injuries: the state of art","volume":"10","author":"Passera","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Surg."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcts.2009.07.034","article-title":"Tracheal lacerations after endotracheal intubation: a proposed morphological classification to guide non-surgical treatment","volume":"37","author":"Cardillo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Cardiothorac Surg."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201611-937CC","article-title":"Posterior tracheal laceration treated with a stent","volume":"14","author":"Chaaban","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.5761\/atcs.cr.11.01768","article-title":"Successful silicon stent for life-threatening tracheal wall laceration","volume":"19","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.21037\/jovs.2017.06.12","article-title":"Endoscopic treatment with fibrin glue of post-intubation tracheal laceration","volume":"3","author":"Fiorelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Vis Surg."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.21037\/shc-22-41","article-title":"The use of fibrin glue for the endoscopic management of post-intubation tracheal lacerations: a case series","volume":"7","author":"Leonardi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Shanghai Chest."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200094","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0094-2020","article-title":"Management of tracheo-oesophageal fistula in adults","volume":"29","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e23324","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.23324","article-title":"Acquired tracheoesophageal fistulas: a case report and review of diagnostic and management challenges","volume":"14","author":"Hasan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.21037\/atm.2018.05.25","article-title":"Surgery for intrathoracic tracheoesophageal and bronchoesophageal fistula","volume":"6","author":"Bibas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Transl Med."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thorsurg.2024.07.005","article-title":"Airway esophageal fistula","volume":"34","author":"Koch","year":"2024","journal-title":"Thorac Surg Clin."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1111\/crj.13607","article-title":"Chinese expert consensus on interventional diagnosis and management of acquired digestive-respiratory tract fistulas (second edition)","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Respir J."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1421020","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2024.1421020","article-title":"Efficacy and risk factors of stent placement in the treatment of malignant tracheoesophageal fistula","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Oncol."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1177\/1753465816687518","article-title":"Current treatment of tracheoesophageal fistula","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ther Adv Respir Dis."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00049809","article-title":"Combined airway and oesophageal stenting in malignant airway-oesophageal fistulas: a prospective study","volume":"36","author":"Herth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur Respir J."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1107461","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2023.1107461","article-title":"Case report: endoscopic closure with double stenting and autologous fascia lata graft of large tracheo-esophageal fistula","volume":"10","author":"Mattioli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Surg."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2017.05.004","article-title":"Mechanical ventilation: state of the art","volume":"92","author":"Pham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2024.01.008","article-title":"Prolonged mechanical ventilation, weaning, and the role of tracheostomy","volume":"40","author":"Rose","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit Care Clin."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000186416.44752.72","article-title":"Noninvasive ventilation to prevent respiratory failure after extubation in high-risk patients","volume":"33","author":"Nava","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)61038-2","article-title":"Non-invasive ventilation after extubation in hypercapnic patients with chronic respiratory disorders: randomized controlled trial","volume":"374","author":"Ferrer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.14194","article-title":"Effect of postextubation high-flow nasal cannula vs noninvasive ventilation on reintubation and postextubation respiratory failure in high-risk patients: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"316","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1159\/000525604","article-title":"Risk factors for prolonged mechanical ventilation and weaning failure: a systematic review","volume":"101","author":"Trudzinski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Respiration."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-023-01230-w","article-title":"Pendelluft in hypoxemic patients resuming spontaneous breathing: proportional modes versus pressure support ventilation","volume":"13","author":"Arellano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann Intensive Care."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2556","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1989.67.6.2556","article-title":"Respiratory mechanics in anesthetized paralyzed humans: effects of flow, volume, and time","volume":"67","author":"D'Angelo","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol (1985)"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.107.1.204","article-title":"Work of breathing after extubation","volume":"107","author":"Ishaaya","year":"1995","journal-title":"Chest."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1186\/cc9296","article-title":"Clinical review: the ABC of weaning failure \u2013 a structured approach","volume":"14","author":"Heunks","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crit Care."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.2012.07075.x","article-title":"Difficult airway society guidelines for the management of tracheal extubation","volume":"67","author":"Popat","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anaesthesia."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.155.3.9117025","article-title":"Pathophysiologic basis of acute respiratory distress in patients who fail a trial of weaning from mechanical ventilation","volume":"155","author":"Jubran","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2024.11.015","article-title":"COPD-associated expiratory central airway collapse: current concepts and new perspectives","volume":"167","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chest."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-017-0646-2","article-title":"Expiratory central airway collapse in stable COPD and during exacerbations","volume":"18","author":"Leong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Respir Res."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.11-2361","article-title":"Age and sex dependence of forced expiratory central airway collapse in healthy volunteers","volume":"142","author":"O'Donnell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chest."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202008-3122LE","article-title":"Association between inhaled corticosteroids and expiratory central airway collapse in smokers","volume":"203","author":"Hudali","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2546","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jvca.2018.08.205","article-title":"Expiratory central airway collapse in adults: anesthetic implications (part 1)","volume":"33","author":"Diaz Milian","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e10907","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000010907","article-title":"Difficulty in tracheal extubation followed by tracheal collapse after balloon dilatation for tracheal stenosis therapy: a case report","volume":"97","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.02.011","article-title":"Expiratory central airway collapse: a comprehensive narrative review","volume":"46","author":"Pu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin Chest Med."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jvca.2018.09.009","article-title":"Expiratory central airway collapse in adults: corrective treatment (part 2)","volume":"33","author":"Diaz Milian","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01367","DOI":"10.1002\/rcr2.1367","article-title":"Long-term pneumatic stenting with positive expiratory pressure therapy for severe expiratory central airway collapse","volume":"12","author":"Funes-Ferrada","year":"2024","journal-title":"Respirol Case Rep."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.55.5621","article-title":"Excessive dynamic airway collapse detected using nondynamic CT","volume":"55","author":"Harada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intern Med."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e90","DOI":"10.4187\/respcare.03972","article-title":"Mechanical ventilation for the treatment of severe excessive dynamic airway collapse","volume":"60","author":"Bastos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respir Care."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcvs.2022.05.037","article-title":"Tracheobronchoplasty yields long-term anatomy, function, and quality of life improvement for patients with severe excessive central airway collapse","volume":"165","author":"Buitrago","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atssr.2023.05.023","article-title":"Clinical outcomes after tracheobronchoplasty with ringed polytetrafluoroethylene vascular graft","volume":"1","author":"Castillo-Larios","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann Thorac Surg Short Rep."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1183\/1025448x.00991109","article-title":"Endobronchial laser treatment: an essential tool in therapeutic bronchoscopy","volume":"48","author":"Dutau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur Respir J."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.162.3.9910047","article-title":"Obstructive fibrinous tracheal pseudomembrane. A potentially fatal complication of tracheal intubation","volume":"162","author":"Desl\u00e9e","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s00408-010-9263-2","article-title":"Postextubation obstructive pseudomembranes: a case series and review of a rare complication after endotracheal intubation","volume":"189","author":"Lins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lung."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.4187\/respcare.04662","article-title":"Obstructive fibrinous tracheal pseudomembrane after endotracheal intubation","volume":"61","author":"Sehgal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respir Care."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-023-06982-4","article-title":"Acute respiratory failure from an obstructive fibrinous tracheal pseudomembrane","volume":"49","author":"Xing","year":"2023","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Medicine"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1712110\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T11:37:41Z","timestamp":1768217861000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1712110\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"references-count":94,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmed.2025.1712110"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1712110","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-858X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-858X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"article-number":"1712110"}}