{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T20:51:05Z","timestamp":1768510265988,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768435200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Community acquired pneumonia is the primary cause of hospital admission and the most common infectious cause of mortality in developed countries, with parapneumonic effusion and empyema representing frequent complications. Because\n                    <jats:italic>Streptococcus pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>\n                    is the leading microbial cause, accurate diagnostic methods with high sensitivity and specificity are crucial to guide effective, narrower-spectrum anti-microbial therapy. This narrative review analyzes culture-independent methods for the diagnosis of pneumococcal parapneumonic effusions, including urinary antigen detection, pleural fluid antigen detection, and polymerase chain reaction, comparing their performance and highlighting key advantages and limitations. While cultures of blood, sputum, and pleural fluid remain the diagnostic gold standard, they have low sensitivity, are time-consuming, and are often affected by prior antibiotic exposure. Non-culture methods provide faster and sometimes more sensitive alternatives: urinary and pleural fluid antigen tests are rapid and practical but risk false positives and negatives, whereas polymerase chain reaction-based techniques offer high specificity and serotype identification but remain costly and less widely available. Emerging approaches such as proteomics and next-generation sequencing may expand diagnostic capabilities in the future. Culture-independent methods therefore hold clinical value in culture-negative cases and can complement traditional techniques, but cultures remain essential for confirmation and antibiotic susceptibility testing, underscoring the need for further adult-focused studies.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2026.1707777","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T06:28:27Z","timestamp":1768458507000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["No culture? No problem: Clinical utility and pitfalls of non-culture diagnostics for pneumococcal parapneumonic effusions"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ilias E.","family":"Dimeas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Biopolis","place":["Larissa, Greece"]},{"name":"School of Medicine, University College Dublin","place":["Dublin, Ireland"]},{"name":"Department of Respiratory Medicine, St. Vincent\u2019s University Hospital","place":["Dublin, Ireland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Georgios-Andreas A.","family":"Kiousis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Biopolis","place":["Larissa, Greece"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cormac","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, University College Dublin","place":["Dublin, Ireland"]},{"name":"Department of Respiratory Medicine, St. Vincent\u2019s University Hospital","place":["Dublin, Ireland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zoe","family":"Daniil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Biopolis","place":["Larissa, Greece"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e45","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201908-1581ST","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. 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