{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T05:15:53Z","timestamp":1788498953447,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glocalization has emerged as the preferred solution in health professions education (HPE) to the tension between globally recognized standards and local training practices. Its structure, however, is hub-and-spoke: theory is developed at a Western center, adaptation handled at the periphery. Curricula, accreditation, and assessment are adapted locally; learning theories are treated as universal and unchanging. This Perspective contends that the glocalization project remains incomplete and suggests how to finish it: by glocalizing the very theory of learning. Drawing on bibliometric evidence of concentrated knowledge production and thirty years of educational practice across four continents, I propose a pluriversal extension that integrates Islamic, Hindu, Confucian, Buddhist, and Ubuntu traditions as active sources of learning theory rather than as cultural contexts for imported ideas. To keep engagement rigorous rather than romantic, I outline a five-level comparison framework (vocabulary, phenomenon, mechanism, prescription, ontology), state its provenance and limits, and demonstrate its operation in worked examples and a complete supplementary application. The paper closes with theoretical and practical implications for curriculum, assessment, research capacity, and artificial intelligence, as well as an agenda for validating the framework.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2026.1929357","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T04:26:03Z","timestamp":1788495963000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Glocalizing the theory of learning: a pluriversal perspective on health professions education"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Nabil","family":"Zary","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Learning, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai Health","place":["Dubai, United Arab Emirates"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1923","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61854-5","article-title":"Health professionals for a new century: transforming education to strengthen health systems in an interdependent world","volume":"376","author":"Frenk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1715","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000001999","article-title":"The \u201cglocalization\u201d of medical school accreditation: case studies from Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan","volume":"92","author":"Ho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acad Med"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1136\/postgradmedj-2020-139579","article-title":"Recalibrating our efforts: from globalisation to glocalisation of medical education","volume":"97","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Postgrad Med J"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfma.2021.10.024","article-title":"Glocalization\u201d in medical education: a framework underlying implementing CBME in a local context","volume":"121","author":"Chou","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Formos Med Assoc"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6920-2-3","article-title":"Geographical distribution of publications in the field of medical education","volume":"2","author":"Tutarel","year":"2002","journal-title":"BMC Med Educ"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e011656","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2022-011656","article-title":"Faster, higher, stronger \u2014 together? A bibliometric analysis of author distribution in top medical education journals","volume":"8","author":"Wondimagegn","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"key":"B7","volume-title":"Science and Human Behavior","author":"Skinner","year":"1953"},{"key":"B8","volume-title":"Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory","author":"Bandura","year":"1986"},{"key":"B9","volume-title":"Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development","author":"Kolb","year":"1984"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1007\/s10459-020-09976-9","article-title":"Southern exposure: levelling the northern tilt in global medical and medical humanities education","volume":"26","author":"Naidu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2923.2007.02991.x","article-title":"Thinking the \u201cpost-colonial\u201d In medical education","volume":"42","author":"Bleakley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med Educ"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S9","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000004339","article-title":"Modern medicine is a colonial artifact: introducing decoloniality to medical education research","volume":"96","author":"Naidu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acad Med"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2019-105866","article-title":"Decolonising ideas of healing in medical education","volume":"46","author":"Lokugamage","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Med Ethics"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.14324\/LRE.19.1.16","article-title":"Decolonising the medical curriculum': humanising medicine through epistemic pluralism, cultural safety and critical consciousness","volume":"19","author":"Wong","year":"2021","journal-title":"London Rev Educ"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000003473","article-title":"Decolonizing global health education: rethinking institutional partnerships and approaches","volume":"96","author":"Eichbaum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acad Med"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)32417-X","article-title":"Will global health survive its decolonisation?","volume":"396","author":"Abimbola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B17","first-page":"533","volume-title":"Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America","author":"Quijano","year":"2000"},{"key":"B18","volume-title":"Epistemologies of the South: Justice Against Epistemicide","author":"De Sousa Santos","year":"2014"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822371779","volume-title":"On Decoloniality: Concepts, Analytics, Praxis","author":"Mignolo","year":"2018"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822371816","volume-title":"Designs for the Pluriverse: Radical Interdependence, Autonomy, and the Making of Worlds","author":"Escobar","year":"2018"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.68","article-title":"Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being","volume":"55","author":"Ryan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.3109\/0142159X.2011.595435","article-title":"How self-determination theory can assist our understanding of the teaching and learning processes in medical education","volume":"33","author":"Cate","year":"2011","journal-title":"AMEE guide No. 59. Med Teach"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.84.1.97","article-title":"Differentiating autonomy from individualism and independence: a self-determination theory perspective on internalization of cultural orientations and well-being","volume":"84","author":"Chirkov","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.65.3.586","article-title":"Two types of religious internalization and their relations to religious orientations and mental health","volume":"65","author":"Ryan","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511815355","volume-title":"Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation","author":"Lave","year":"1991"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511803932","volume-title":"Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity","author":"Wenger","year":"1998"},{"key":"B27","volume-title":"The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action","author":"Sch\u00f6n","year":"1983"},{"key":"B28","volume-title":"Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning","author":"Mezirow","year":"1991"},{"key":"B29","volume-title":"Pedagogy of the Oppressed","author":"Freire","year":"2000"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2923.2009.03498.x","article-title":"Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies","volume":"44","author":"Van Merri\u00ebnboer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med Educ"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S63","DOI":"10.1097\/00001888-199009000-00045","article-title":"The assessment of clinical skills\/competence\/performance","volume":"65","author":"Miller","year":"1990","journal-title":"Acad Med"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000000913","article-title":"Amending Miller's Pyramid to include professional identity formation","volume":"91","author":"Cruess","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acad Med"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1097\/00001888-199804000-00013","article-title":"Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicine's Hidden curriculum","volume":"73","author":"Hafferty","year":"1998","journal-title":"Acad Med"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/jedm.12000","article-title":"Validating the interpretations and uses of test scores","volume":"50","author":"Kane","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Educ Meas"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195082890.001.0001","volume-title":"The Virtues in Medical Practice","author":"Pellegrino","year":"1993"},{"key":"B36","volume-title":"Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples","author":"Smith","year":"2012"},{"key":"B37","volume-title":"The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West","author":"Makdisi","year":"1981"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400862580","volume-title":"The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo: A Social History of Islamic Education","author":"Berkey","year":"1992"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1086\/503881","article-title":"Be masters in that you teach and continue to learn: medieval Muslim thinkers on educational theory","volume":"50","author":"G\u00fcnther","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comp Educ Rev"},{"key":"B40","volume-title":"Al-Ghazali's Path to Sufism: His Deliverance from Error (al-Munqidh min al-Dalal)","year":"2000"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400866090","volume-title":"The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History","author":"Khaldun","year":"2015"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2307\/1006137","article-title":"Medical ethics of medieval islam with special reference to al-Ruhawi's \u201cpractical ethics of the physician\u201d","volume":"57","author":"Levey","year":"1967","journal-title":"Trans Am Philos Soc"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2929.2005.02341.x","article-title":"Entrustability of professional activities and competency-based training","volume":"39","author":"Ten Cate","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med Educ"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195124354.001.0001","volume-title":"The Early Upani\u1e63ads: Annotated Text and Translation","author":"Olivelle","year":"1998"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1163\/9789047401476","volume-title":"Education in Ancient India","author":"Scharfe","year":"2002"},{"key":"B46","volume-title":"The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings","author":"Wujastyk","year":"2003"},{"key":"B47","volume-title":"Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries","year":"2003"},{"key":"B48","volume-title":"Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation","author":"Tu","year":"1985"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139028400","volume-title":"Cultural Foundations of Learning: East and West","author":"Li","year":"2012"},{"key":"B50","volume-title":"The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nik\u0101ya","author":"\u00d1\u0101\u1e47amoli","year":"1995"},{"key":"B51","volume-title":"The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga)","year":"1991"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/14639947.2011.564843","article-title":"On some definitions of mindfulness","volume":"12","author":"Gethin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Contemp Buddhism"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.282.9.833","article-title":"Mindful practice","volume":"282","author":"Epstein","year":"1999","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B54","volume-title":"African Philosophy Through Ubuntu","author":"Ramose","year":"1999"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9760.2007.00280.x","article-title":"Toward an African moral theory","volume":"15","author":"Metz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Polit Philos"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/02580136.2013.817637","article-title":"The end of ubuntu","volume":"32","author":"Matolino","year":"2013","journal-title":"S Afr J Philos"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1353\/hpu.2010.0233","article-title":"Cultural humility versus cultural competence: a critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education","volume":"9","author":"Tervalon","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Health Care Poor Underserved"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-019-1082-3","article-title":"Why cultural safety rather than cultural competency is required to achieve health equity: a literature review and recommended definition","volume":"18","author":"Curtis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Equity Health"},{"key":"B59","first-page":"1","article-title":"Decolonization is not a metaphor","volume":"1","author":"Tuck","year":"2012","journal-title":"Decolonization: Indigeneity Educ Soc"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0000198","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pdig.0000198","article-title":"Performance of ChatGPT on USMLE: potential for AI-assisted medical education using large language models","volume":"2","author":"Kung","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLOS Digit Health"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-023-00939-z","article-title":"Large language models propagate race-based medicine","volume":"6","author":"Omiye","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"pgae346","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgae346","article-title":"Cultural bias and cultural alignment of large language models","volume":"3","author":"Tao","year":"2024","journal-title":"PNAS Nexus"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000005439","article-title":"ChatGPT and generative artificial intelligence for medical education: potential impact and opportunity","volume":"99","author":"Boscardin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acad Med"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Medicine"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2026.1929357\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T04:26:10Z","timestamp":1788495970000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2026.1929357\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"references-count":63,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmed.2026.1929357"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2026.1929357","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-858X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-858X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"article-number":"1929357"}}