{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T23:36:31Z","timestamp":1789688191470,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]],"date-time":"2022-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:italic>Salmonella enterica<\/jats:italic> is a diverse species of bacterial pathogens comprised of &amp;gt;2,500 serovars with variable host ranges and virulence properties. Accumulating evidence indicates that two AB<jats:sub>5<\/jats:sub>-type toxins, typhoid toxin and ArtAB toxin, contribute to the more severe virulence properties of the <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> strains that encode them. It was recently discovered that there are two distinct types of <jats:italic>artAB<\/jats:italic>-like genetic elements in <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>: those that encode ArtAB toxins (<jats:italic>artAB<\/jats:italic> elements) and those in which the <jats:italic>artA<\/jats:italic> gene is degraded and the ArtB homolog, dubbed PltC, serves as an alternative delivery subunit for typhoid toxin (<jats:italic>pltC<\/jats:italic> elements). Here, we take a multifaceted approach to explore the evolutionary diversification of <jats:italic>artAB<\/jats:italic>-like genetic elements in <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>. We identify 7 subtypes of ArtAB toxins and 4 different PltC sequence groups that are distributed throughout the <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> genus. Both <jats:italic>artAB<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>pltC<\/jats:italic> are encoded within numerous diverse prophages, indicating a central role for phages in their evolutionary diversification. Genetic and structural analyses revealed features that distinguish <jats:italic>pltC<\/jats:italic> elements from <jats:italic>artAB<\/jats:italic> and identified evolutionary adaptations that enable PltC to efficiently engage typhoid toxin A subunits. For both <jats:italic>pltC<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>artAB<\/jats:italic>, we find that the sequences of the B subunits are especially variable, particularly amongst amino acid residues that fine tune the chemical environment of their glycan binding pockets. This study provides a framework to delineate the remarkably complex collection of <jats:italic>Salmonella artAB<\/jats:italic>\/<jats:italic>pltC<\/jats:italic>-like genetic elements and provides a window into the mechanisms of evolution for AB<jats:sub>5<\/jats:sub>-type toxins.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1016438","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]],"date-time":"2022-11-25T04:55:41Z","timestamp":1669352141000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["The evolutionary diversification of the Salmonella artAB toxin locus"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Adaobi","family":"Ojiakor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachel N.","family":"Gibbs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhe","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiang","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Casey C.","family":"Fowler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1086\/318457","article-title":"Nontyphoidal salmonellosis","volume":"32","author":"Acheson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. 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